T  X 

U57 


UC-NRLF 


1^- 


o 

:>4 


hk.^^ 


COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 
WOMAN'S  COMMITTEE    ,^l^^^ 


^GENCIES  FOR 

THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS 

WITHOUT  PROFIT 

A  SURVEY  OF  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT 
WITH  PARTICULAR  REFERENCE  TO 
THEIR  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


Prepared  by 

IVA  LOWTHER  PETERS,  Ph.  D. 

Under  the  direction  of 

THE  FOOD  PRODUCTION  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 
OP    THE    WOMAN'S    COMMITTEE 
COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFHCE 

1919 


(/(.  S  .      COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 

"  WOMAN'S  COMMITTEE .        l>^/^f'  ^  Ij^-^^ 


h/\.^^ 


AGENCIES  FOR 

THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS 

WITHOUT  PROFIT 

A  SURVEY  OF  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT 
WITH  PARTICULAR  REFERENCE  TO 
THEIR  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


Prepared  by 

IVA  LOWTHER  PETERS,  Ph.  D. 

Under  the  direction  of 

THE  FOOD  PRODUCTION  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 
OF    THE    WOMAN'S    COMMITTEE 
COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


f 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1919 


U^7 


WOMAN'S  COMMITTEE,  COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE, 


DEPARTMENT   OF  FOOD  PRODUCTION  AND   HOME  ECONOMICS. 

Mrs.  Stanley  McCormick,  chairman. 

Miss  Helen  W.  Atwater,  executive  chairman. 

ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  ON  SURVEY  OF  AGENCIES  FOR  SALE  OF 
COOKED  FOODS  WITHOUT  PROFIT. 

Mrs.  Mauy  H.  Abel, 

Writer  on  Home  Economics  subjects;  Home  Economics  Director,  Maryland 
Food  Administration. 
Miss  Helen  W.  Atwater, 

Specialist  in  Home  Economics,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Dr.  Sophonisba  Breckinridge, 

Professor,  Chicago  School  of  Civics  and  Philanthropy,  Chicago,  111. 
Dr.  Lucile  Eaves, 

Director,    Research    Department^    Women's    Educational    and    Industrial 
Union,  Boston,  Mass. 
Dr.   Vernon   Kellogg, 

Professor,  Leland  Stanford  University;  Uiwted  States  Food  Adndnlstration. 
Miss  Mabi.e  HvnE  Kiitredge, 

Writer  and  organizer  of  model  housekeei>ing  enterprises,  public  kitchens, 
etc.,  New  York  City. 
Dr.  C.  F.  Langworthy, 

Chief,  Office  of  Home  Economics,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Dr.  KuBY  Green  Smith, 

Division    of   Women's   Work,   Extension   Work   North   and   West,    United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2 


^ 


6A 


A 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introductory  statement 5 

General  purpose  of  the  survey 7 

Pre-war  experiments  in  communal  feeding —  9 

The  national  kitchens  of  Great  Britain 25 

The  American  situation 44 

Conclusions—, CO 

Appendix  A. — Study  of  equipment  for  a  central  kitchen,  by  the  Women's 

Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  Boston G5 

Appendix  B. — Schedules  of  equipment  used    by  New  York  School  Lunch 
Connnittee,  Association  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Condition  of  the 

Poor 74 

Appendix  C. — Schedule  of  standardized  cooking  appliances;  taken  from 
Handbook  of  National  Kitchens  and   Restaurants,   National  Kitchens 

Division,  (British)  Ministry  of  Food,  July,  1918 77 

3 


ivi237963 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2006  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/agenciesforsaleoOOunitrich 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT, 


The  survey  here  reported  was  decided  upon  by  the  Woman's  Com- 
mittee of  the  Council  of  National  Defense  in  the  spring  of  1918, 
and  the  plan  for  it  was  developed  by  an  advisory  committee  of 
persons  known  throughout  the  country  for  their  understanding  of 
the  economics  of  nutrition.  At  the  time  when  it  w^as  undertaken, 
no  one  could  foresee  how  food  conditions  might  develop  in  the  United 
States,  and  an  intelligent  policy  for  national  preparedness  demanded 
the  collection  of  reliable  information  regarding  the  practical  methods 
and  economic  results  of  group  or  community  cooking  wherever  it 
had  been  tried.  Although  the  outcome  of  the  war  has  now  changed 
the  international  food  situation  and  there  seems  less  danger  of  an 
acute  shortage  in  this  countr}^,  food  conditions  are  still  far  from 
normal.  We  may  yet  be  called  on  to  share  a  large  proportion  of  our 
supplies  with  less  fortunate  nations,  and  prices  are  still  so  high  that 
the  adequate  feeding  of  many  families  remains  a  serious  problem. 
Questions  of  domestic  labor  are  also  becoming  more  rather  than  less 
complicated,  both  in  homes  which  depend  on  servants  and  where  the 
woman  who  formerly  kept  house  for  her  own  family  is  now  em- 
ployed outside.  Moreover,  the  general  interest  in  all  these  questions 
is  much  greater  than  formerl}^,  while  reliable  information  is  very 
scarce.  It  has,  therefore,  seemed  wise  to  publish  this  report,  though 
the  original  purpose  in  making  it  no  longer  holds. 

It  is  realized  fully  that  the  material  here  presented  does  not  cover 
the  whole  subject  of  the  preparation  of  food  outside  of  the  home. 
Such  a  complete  survey  would  have  involved  investigations  beyond 
the  functions  and  means  of  the  Woman's  Committee.  No  effort  has 
been  made  to  include  restaurants,  even  those  on  a  cooperative  or 
community  basis,  except  when  they  are  closely  connected  with  enter- 
prises which  sell  cooked  food  to  be  consumed  elsewhere.  Commer- 
cial canning  factories,  bakeshops,  delicatessen  shops,  etc.,  have  also 
been  disregarded  together  with  community  canning  kitchens,  cooper- 
ati^e  exchanges  for  home-cooked  foods,  etc.,  though  the  advisory  com- 
mittee is  probably  unanimous  in  the  belief  that  if  properly  con- 
trolled as  to  sanitation  and  price,  some  of  these  offer  great  promise 
of  relief  in  this  country.  The  study  is  limited  to  noncommercial 
agencies  which  strive  to  remove  or  lessen  the  routine  iDreparation  of 

5 


6  INTRODUCTORY. 

three  meals  a  day  in  the  individual  home  without  weakening  the 
privacy  and  unity  of  the  family  group.  The  attempt  has  also  been 
made  to  include  practical  information  as  to  organization,  manage- 
ment and  equipment  so  that  anyone  considering  the  establishment  of 
such  an  enterprise  might  profit  by  previous  experience. 

In  collecting  the  information  here  summarized,  Mrs.  Peters  has 
had  access  not  only  to  the  published  documents  in  the  various  Gov- 
ernment libraries,  but  also  to  unpublished  material  in  the  files  of  the 
United  States  Food  Administration,  for  whose  help  and  courtesy 
special  acknowledgement  should  be  made. 

Similar  acknowledgement  is  due  to  Mrs.  Abel  for  the  use  of  her 
unique  collection  of  reports,  descriptions,  and  personal  notes  concern- 
ing the  earlier  enterprises  in  this  country  and  abroad.  Without  this 
otherwise  inaccessible  material  many  sections  of  the  survey  would 
have  been  impossible. 

The  committee  is  also  greatly  indebted  to  the  Woman's  Educa- 
tional and  Industrial  Union  of  Boston  and  the  New  York  School 
Lunch  Committee  of  the  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition 
of  the  Poor  for  i)ermission  to  print  the  hitherto  unpublished  ma- 
terial given  in  Appendices  A  and  B. 

Miss  Kittredge  and  Dr.  Kellogg  have  gone  abroad  on  special  mis- 
sions since  the  survey  was  begun  and  have  been  unable  to  pass  judg- 
ment on  the  report  before  its  publication.  Mrs.  Peters  also  left  for 
overseas  service  before  the  manuscript  was  ready  for  the  press.  The 
final  editing  (including  the  formulation  of  the  conclusions)  was 
therefore  done  by  Miss  Atwater,  who  has  had  immediate  direction 
of  the  survey  from  the  beginning. 

Katharine  D.  McCormick, 
(Mrs.  Stanley  McCormick)  , 
Chairman^  Department  of  Food  Production  and  Home  Economics^ 

Woman's  Committee^  Council  of  National  Defense, 

January,  1919. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS  WITHOUT 

PROFIT. 

A  SURVEY  OF  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT  WITH  PARTICULAR  REFER- 
ENCE TO  THEIR  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  EFFECT. 


GENERAL   PURPOSE    OF    THE    SURVEY. 

As  a  result  of  the  shortage  of  food,  fuel,  and  labor  occasioned  by 
the  great  war,  nearly  all  European  countries  have  had  recourse  to 
agencies  already  in  existence  which  had  for  their  purpose  the  prepa- 
ration of  food  in  bulk,  or  have  established  such  agencies  on  a  national 
scale.  The  oldest  of  these  agencies  were  on  a  charitable  or  semi- 
philanthropic  basis;  some  of  the  large.st  were  cooperative;  others 
were  commercial.  But  all  have  undergone  change  to  meet  the  present 
emergency. 

The  impression  is  prevalent  that  mass  feeding  of  some  kind,  such 
as  cooperative  housekeeping,  communal  kitchens,  or  some  modified 
form  which  will  result  from  experimentation  on  a  large  scale,  will  be 
retained  as  a  permanent  institution  after  the  war.  It  has  been  seen 
by  social  economists  for  the  past  century  that  the  use  of  such  agencies, 
by  taking  the  kitchen  out  of  the  home,  would  affect  not  only. the  cost 
and  quality  of  the  food  consumed,  but  also  such  questions  as  those  of 
domestic  labor,  woman  in  industry,  and  would  occasion  accompany- 
ing changes  in  the  economy  of  the  household. 

Sporadic  attempts  to  establish  agencies  for  the  preparation  of  food 
for  home  consumption  have  been  made  in  the  United  States,  but  for 
the  most  part  with  no  lasting  success,  save  in  the  case  of  such  com- 
mercial enterprises  as  delicatessen  shops.  The  attempts  at  coopera- 
tive housekeeping,  of  which  a  record  was  faithfully  kept  over  a  long 
period  by  Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel,  founder  of  the  New  England 
Kitchen,  were  chiefly  interesting  in  the  light  they  threw  on  the 
psychology  of  the  American  people.  In  a  review  of  the  history  of 
the  Montclair  Cooperative  Society,  a  cooperative  venture  which  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  war,  its  president,  Mr.  Emerson  P.  Harris,^ 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  two  fundamental  conditions  to  the 
success  of  cooperation  almost  never  exist  in  the  United  States — effi- 

1  Cooperation,  the  Hope  of  the  Consumer,  by  Emerson  P.  Harris,  New  York,    1918. 

7 


8  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

ciency  and  perseverance  on  the  part  of  tlie  cooperators  and  efficient 
supervision  and  management.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
necessities  of  the  present  crisis  will  lessen  our  excessive  individualism 
and  socialize  us  to  a  point  where  w^e  can  live  in  more  closely  united 
communities. 

If  agencies  for  communal  cooking  are  introduced  into  the  United 
States  as  a  result  of  the  necessity  for  conserving  food  and  fuel,  or 
of  reducing  cost,  it  will  be  of  importance  to  know  Avhether  they  should 
be  considered  as  a  valuable  permanent  addition  to  our  national  life. 
The  way  in  which  they  should  be  established  will  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  answer  to  this  question.  Such  an  answer  can  be  given  only 
after  a  study  of  different  types  of  communal  feeding.  Inasmuch  as 
the  development  of  these  types  has  differed  in  the  various  countries 
in  which  they  have  arisen  or  taken  root  after  introduction  from  other 
countries,  a  brief  descriptive  and  historical  surve}^  of  these  agencies 
has  been  undertaken  in  order  to  make  a  fair  comparison  of  the 
methods  used. 

This  study  wdll  first  consider  the  pre-war  development  of  communal 
agencies  for  the  preparation  of  food  to  be  consumed  in  the  home. 
Inasmuch  as  Great  Britain  has,  as  a  war  measure,  established  a  sys- 
tem of  national  kitchens,  unprecedented  in  success  and  development,' 
the  second  part  of  the  survey  will  consist  of  a  study  of  the  British 
national  kitchens.  The  third  part  will  undertake  to  present  the  situa- 
tion in  the  United  States  up  to  November,  1918. 


PRE-WAR  EXPERIMENTS  IN  COMMUNAL  FEEDING. 

Pre-war  experiments  in  communal  feeding  lead  back  in  two  lines, 
one,  that  of  cooperative  effort,  and  the  other,  that  of  charitable  relief. 

One  form  of  cooperation  which  took  its  rise  in  the  early  nineteenth 
century  has  had  a  marvelous  development  from  a  small  beginning. 
The  direct  line  of  the  great  English  Cooperative  Societies,  among  the 
largest  purveyors  of  food  in  the  world,  leads  back  to  Robert  Owen 
(1771-1858),  wealthy  factory  owner,  social  reformer,  and  Utopian 
dreamer.  Owen  opened  a  store  in  his  model  factory  colony  at  New 
Lanark  where  the  people  could  buy  goods  of  the  soundest  quality 
at  little  more  than  cost  price.  In  the  later  elaboration  of  his  theories, 
he  advocated  colonies  of  about  1,200  persons  each,  who  were  to  be  fed 
from  a  public  kitchen.  Owen  believed  that  this  method  of  feeding 
families  would  go  far  toward  solving  many  of  the  problems  of 
women.  His  teaching  of  the  necessity  of  conscious  seeking  after  the 
welfare  of  the  community,  in  contrast  with  the  prevailing  "  laissez- 
faire  "  philosophy,  his  belief  in  self-supporting  communities,  and  his 
vision  of  a  new  moral  and  industrial  order  have  left  an  impress  on 
all  classes. 

Cooperative  societies  persisted  in  England  from  the  time  of  Owen, 
with  more  or  less  success.  Between  1828  and  1840  they  reached  some 
400  or  500.  One  of  these  societies  had  already  been  formed  in  Roch- 
dale, in  Lancashire,  before  the  Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers,  in  1844, 
furnished  an  administrative  method.  Appalling  need  combined 
with  a  great  idealism  in  "  the  hungry  forties  "  brought  about  the  bril- 
liant invention  of  "  dividends  on  purchases."  When  the  increase  in 
number  of  cooperative  stores  on  the  Rochdale  plan  brought  into  ex- 
istence the  Cooperative  Wholesale  Societies,  the  venture. was  made 
into  the  field  of  prepared  foods.  In  1873  the  "  C.  W.  S."  started  the 
making  of  biscuits  and  sweets.  To-day  it  owns  cocoa  and  chocolate 
works,  preserve,  candied  peel  and  pickle  works,  lard  refineries,  but- 
ter factories,  bacon  curing,  dry-salting  and  spice-grinding  plants,  etc. 
The  society  has  creameries  in  Ireland,  tallow  and  oil  factories  in 
Australia,  bacon  factories  in  Denmark  and  Ireland,  3,386  acres  of 
tea  plantations  in  Cejdon,  fruit  farms  in  various  parts  of  England, 
and  great  preserving  establishments.  It  owns  in  the  Spanish  raisin 
district  a  packing  house  which  employs  600  persons  in  picking,  pack- 
105584"— 19 2  9 


10  AGENCIES  FOE  THE   SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

ing  and  shipping  fruit.  It  owns  the  largest  flour  mills  in  Great 
Britain.  It  is  the  largest  single  buyer  of  Canadian  wheat,  and  has 
recently  purchased  10,000  acres  of  wheat  land  in  Saskatchewan.  An 
authority  on  the  subject  makes  the  statement  that  the  English  Co- 
operative Wholesale  is  the  largest  food  supply  establishment  in  the 
world. 

All  of  the  European  countries  had  proved  fertile  ground  for  the 
growth  of  the  cooperative  movement  before  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
war,  cooperative  buying  societies  frequently  developing  some  form  of 
cooperative  feeding  under  the  pressure  of  high  prices.  Impoverished 
Ireland  between  1889  and  1911  formed  931  societies  for  butter  mak- 
ing. Of  Denmark,  as  of  Ireland,  it  has  been  said  that  it  owes  its 
rebirth  since  its  destructive  w^ar  with  Prussia  in  1863-61  to  agri- 
cultural cooperation.  Danish  cooperative  dairies  export  butter  to  the 
most  remote  lands.  In  Sweden,  the  movement  started  among  the  in- 
dustrialists. Norway  reports  a  cooperative  bakery.  A  Christiania 
society  runs  14  groceries  and  3  dairies. 

Official  Germany  tried  to  discourage  the  spread  of  cooperative 
stores.  It  was  a  usual  procedure  in  both  Germany  and  Austria  to 
give  members  of  the  stores  the  choice  of  retiring  from,  or  expul- 
sion from,  an}^  senior  military  club  to  which  they  might  belong.* 
But  in  spite  of  this  opposition,  German  coop)erative  societies  have 
a  membership  of  one-half  that  of  England.  According  to  a  French 
report,*  there  were  in  Germany  in  1917,  2,300  societies  buying  goods 
at  cost  and  expending  500,000,000  francs.  Harris  says^  that  the 
society  at  Hamburg  gained  15,500  members  during  the  3^ear  1916-17. 
Among  the  other  activities  of  this  society  are  butcher  shops,  bakeries, 
and  delicatessen  shops.  The  Government  has  enlisted  the  assist- 
ance of  these  societies  in  the  work  of  establishing  public  kitchens, 
"which  became  a  necessity  in  1916.  The  question  of  collective  feed- 
ing was  raised  directly  in  the  budget  committee  of  the  Landtag  of 
Prussia  on  November  21  and  23,  1916,  and  the  president  of  the 
food  office  intimated  that  communal  feeding  might  become  obli- 
gatory.* 

Austria  was  the  last  of  the  great  European  countries  to  develop 
cooperation.  But  in  1867,  under  the  stress  of  the  same  crisis  which 
led  Dr.  von  Kiihn  to  inaugurate  the  Vienna  Volkskiichen  (see  p.  17), 
the  societies  gained  a  foothold  which  they  have  never  lost.  The 
war  has  seen  the  formation  of  the  great  Victualling  Union  of  War 

1  Hans  :Munor  in  "  The  Cooperative  Movement  Abroad,"  International  Cooperative  Bul- 
letin, IW8. 

a  Gilles  Noimand,  La  guerre,  le  commerce  frangais  et  les  consommateurs.     Taris,  1017. 

"  Cooperation,  the  Hope  of  the  Consumer.     New  York,  1918,  p.  230. 

*  Noel  Amaudru,  Les  Culsiaes  collectives  en  AU^magne,  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Scientifi<iue 
d'Hygifene  Alimentaire,  VoL  V,  No.  6,  1917,  p.  359. 


AGEITCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS.  11 

Workers,  established  in  1916,  a  vast  cooperative  society  of  the  em- 
ployees of  various  industrial  enterprises. 

The  cooperative  bakeries  of  Belgium  have  had  a  unique  develop- 
ment. Those  started  at  Ghent  in  the  eighties  by  Edouarde  Anseele 
included  among  other  activities  an  output  of  110,000  loaves  of  bread 
a  week.  Brussels  had  a  society  equally  large.  The  dividends  from 
these  bakeries  were  used  to  form  a  fund  out  of  which  have  grown 
the  Yooruit  and  the  Maisons  du  Peuple.  During  the  great  strikes 
which  the  workers  of  Belgium  have  conducted  at  various  times, 
free  loaves  have  been  distributed  from  the  cooperative  bakeries  to 
the  unemployed.^  The  Maisons  du  Peuple,  at  the  time  when  Ger- 
many overran  Belgium,  were  recreational  and  educational  centers 
with  beautiful  gardens.  Functioning  as  clubhouses  for  the  people, 
they  provided  moving  pictures,  dances  and  reading  rooms,  concerts 
and  dramas. 

France  was  the  original  home  of  cooperative  production.  In 
spite  of  the  tragedy  of  the  Commune,  cooperative  workshops  had 
persisted,  and  in  1910  were  reported  as  doing  an  annual  business 
of  $10,000,000.  The  statistical  tables  prepared  by  M.  Charles  Gide,» 
show  that  the  French  tendency  in  cooperative  ventuixis,  as  con- 
trasted with  those  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries,  has  been  toward  de- 
centralization. One-third  of  the  French  societies  are  bakeries,  and 
most  of  the  stores  sell  only  groceries.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
war  the  cooperatives  of  Paris,  at  the  request  of  the  Government, 
have  taken  over  the  frozen-meat  trade.  They  have  also  reestablished 
the  shops  of  the  Fi-cnch-Swiss  society,  "Maggi,''  where  milk,  but- 
ter, and  eggs  were  sold,  and  have  been  keeping  down  the  price  of 
milk. 

Their  development  is  discussed  in  a  report  of  a  special  mis- 
sion sent  to  France  bV  the  British  ministry  of  food  :^ 

In  numbers  of  French  towns  where  there  were  no  cooperative  societies  the 
inhabitants,  sometimes  with  the  help  of  the  municipality,  have  formed  leagues 
to  fight  against  exploitation  by  local  dealers.  Cooperative  bakeries  are  being 
formed  at  the  front.  But  communal  preparation  of  food  has  not  developed 
in  France  along  the  lines  now  familiar  in  England,  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy. 

Now,  even  more  than  in  peace  time,  the  cooking  of  food  is  regardeti  in 
France  as  a  fine  art.  The  sustenance  affordeii  by  good  food  well  cooked  is  a 
fundamental  fact  of  the  war  to  which  French  men  and  women  are  keenly 
alive.  The  ministry's  representatives  found  this  to  be  the  case  particularly  in 
the  canteens  used  by  industrial  workers,  which  are  very  efficiently  managed. 
The  same  establishment  had  attached  to  it  a  creche,  and  here  mothers,  while 
they  worked,  were  able  to  leave  their  babies,  whom  they  could  visit  at  stated 

1  "A  Baker  and  What  He  Baked,"  by  Albert  Sonnicliseo.     Tlie  Outlook,  Dec.  27,  1913, 

*  Les  Sooiete.s  Cooperative.s  de  Consummation,  p.  38, 
«  National  Food  Journal,  Nov.  14,  1017,  p.  78. 


12         AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

hours.  The  men  and  women  have  their  meals  together  and  share  their  rest 
rooms.  A  popular  feature  in  some  canteens  is  a  "  heating-up  "  room,  where 
wives  who  bring  their  husbands'  meals  can  warm  the  food  on  hot  plates,  after 
the  American  style,  and  then  stay  and  partake  of  the  meal  in  company  with 
their  husbands  in  the  communal  dining  room.  The  work  performed  by  the  can- 
teens in  providing  good  fare  amid  comfortable  surroundings  is  of  particular 
merit  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  advances  in  the  price  of  foodstuffs  far 
outstrip  the  increases   in  wages. 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  strong  conservatism  with  reference  to 
any  change  in  the  habits  of  the  French  family,  recent  reports  are 
significant  of  approaching  change  along  lines  for  which  our  study  of 
French  cooperative  movements  has  prepared  us.  In  a  special  cable 
appearing  in  the  New  York  Times  on  September  18,  1918,  the  writer 
says: 

The  French  belief  in  collectivism  as  a  political  economic  faith  is  probably 
stronger  to-day  than  ever,  in  view  of  the  rampant  profiteering  by  almost  every 
class  of  retail  trader  since  the  war  began. 

A  cable  to  the  same  newspaper  dated  September  11,  1918,  states 
that  Finance  Minister  Klotz  has  announced  that: 

The  French  Government  would  take  vigorously  in  hand  the  question  of  stop- 
ping the  artificial  rise  in  the  prices  of  all  necessaries  in  the  way  of  foodstuffs, 
which  in  the  last  few  weeks  has  assumed  little  short  of  monstrous  proportions. 
Taking  the  view  that  the  only  effective  remedy  will  be  to  suppress  the  abusive 
profits  of  intermediaries,  the  Government  has  appointed  an  interministerial 
committee  to  study  the  best  means  of  placing  at  the  disposal  of  the  population 
of  the  country,  in  best  condition  as  to  price  and  quality,  necessaries  in  the  way 
of  foodstuffs,  and  more  particularly  measures  which  may  be  taken  in  this  di- 
rection for  the  benefit  of  those  engaged  in  public  services,  by  the  creation  of 
cooperative  agencies,  canteens,  and  organizations  for  meals  in  common. 

Italy  has  been  a  fruitful  field  for  all  forms  of  cooperative  so- 
cieties. The  unique  cooperative  labor  group,  the  "Societa  di  Lavoro," 
has  been  her  contribution  to  the  movement.  The  large  cooperative 
union  in  Milan  had  sales  in  1916  of  almost  24,000,000  lire  as  against 
15,000,000  in  1915.  The  foundation  of  the  war  restaurants  of  Man- 
tua, Florence,  Milan,  Eome,  Bologna,  Turin,  and  other  Italian  cities 
was  often  the  restaurants  that  had  existed  in  the  cooperative  soci- 
eties' stores. 

When  we  turn  to  the  annals  of  cooperative  movements  in  America 
to  find  a  possible  background  for  the  development  of  communal  feed- 
ing, we  find  that  this  country  has  been  the  grave  of  such  ventures, 
from  such  great  adventures  as  the  colony  of  Owen  at  New  Harmony, 
Ind.,  and  the  romantic  Brook  Farm  experiment,  down  to  the  hum- 
blest and  most  practical  attempt  at  cooperative  housekeeping.  There 
are  scattered  across  the  continent  to-day  some  hundreds  of  isolated 
cooperative  stores.  But  the  isolation  which  has  fostered  the  over- 
individuation  of  Americans  has  prevented  the  growth  of  groups  with 
the  true  spirit  of  cooperation,  the  element  which  has  hitherto  been 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS.  13 

lacking.  Whether  the  present  crisis  will  force  into  our  hands  a  tool 
as  perfected  as  is  the  Eochdale  plan  of  cooperation,  remains  to  be 
seen.  It  is  worth  remembering,  however,  that  in  none  of  the  coun- 
tries where  such  cooperative  societies  have  proved  generally  suc- 
cessful have  they  had  commercial  copipetitors  organized  as  are  the 
so-called  "  chain  stores  "  and  large  mail-order  houses  of  the  United 
States. 

We  have  thus  far  dealt  with  a  medium  for  production  and  distri- 
bution of  food  which  was  worked  by  the  private  initiative  of  thrifty 
and  farsighted  members  of  society,  who  needed  no  instruction  from 
members  of  another  social  class  in  the  principles  of  "  self-help."  But 
in  every  social  group  are  to  be  found  the  careless,  the  thriftless,  and 
improvident,  as  well  as  those  who  through  misfortune  must  be 
helped  by  others.  In  old  and  densely  populated  communities  agen- 
cies have  been  developed  to  care  for  these  gi'oups  as  well  as  to  pro- 
vide for  the  feeding  of  large  numbers  in  times  of  famine,  war,  and 
epidemics.  Inseparably  connected  with  the  problems  of  mass  feed- 
ing raised  by  such  classes  and  conditions  is  the  name  of  Benjamin 
Thompson,  Count  Rumford,  British- American  scientist,  adminis- 
trator, and  philanthropist. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  period  when  there  was  in 
existence  only  the  scanty  body  of  facts  that  made  up  the  beginning 
of  chemistry,  physiology,  and  physics,  Count  Rumford  brought  to 
the  choice  and  preparation  of  food  on  a  large  scale  the  insight  and 
methods  of  the  scientist.  During  the  11  years  spent  by  him  in  Ba- 
varia on  the  invitation  of  Prince  Maximilian,  he  improved  the  food 
of  the  Bavarian  Army  without  materially  increasing  its  cost.  In 
an  effort  to  solve  the  food  problem  of  the  poor,  he  caused  no  fewer 
than  2,600  beggars  of  Munich  to  be  arrested  by  military  patrols  and 
transferred  to  an  industrial  establishment  called  the  House  of  In- 
dustry. Here  they  w^ere  fed,  not  with  the  ordinary  food  of  the 
country,  but  with  a  nutritious  soup  with  dried  peas  and  barley  as  the 
basis.  Already  interested  in  the  problem  of  heat,  he  studied  the 
effect  of  water  at  different  temperatures  on  the  ingi^edients  of  his 
new  food.  Stoves  were  constructed  for  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel. 
As  a  result  of  his  inventions,  it  was  found  that  1,000  portions  of 
soup  in  summer  and  1,200  in  winter  could  be  cooked  and  served  with 
bread  at  a  cost  of  one-third  of  a  farthing  a  portion.  Kitchens  of 
this  same  type  were  established  in  Dublin  and  Ireland.  The  soup 
served  in  them  is  still  the  main  food  of  inmates  of  Houses  of  In- 
dustry on  the  Continent.  No  real  advance  on  the  foundation  laid 
by  Count  Rumford  was  made  in  later  efforts  to  improve  the  food  of 
the  poor  until  our  own  time. 

It  has  been  said  of  Count  Rumford  that,  being  a  scientific  man,  he 
put  nutrition  too  far  above  attractiveness ;  and  that  it  may  have  been 


14  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

from  his  efforts  that  the  tradition  arose  that  "  cheap  food  is  nasty." 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  surroundings  and  associations  under 
which  the  food  was  served  had  much  to  do  with  the  tradition.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  prejudices  of  many  kinds 
which  chister  about  communal  feeding  have  been  serious  impedi- 
ments to  the  success  of  these  ventures.  Perhaps  when  the  psychology 
of  nutrition  is  better  understood,  we  shall  be  able  to  cope  with  these 
hindrances  with  greater  intelligence.  But  in  spite  of  tradition,  it  is 
of  interest  to  note  that  when  the  exigencies  of  war  compelled  Ger- 
many to  try  the  experiment  of  cost-price  public  kitchens  and  aided 
workpeople's  kitchens,  Munich  and  Bavaria  led  the  way.  By  No- 
vember, 1916,  Munich  was  giving  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  man- 
agement of  these  kitchens. 

There  have  been  several  noteworthy  experiments  in  cheap  catering 
in  the  various  European  countries  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  They  have  combined  the  discoveries  of  Count  Rumford 
and  his  successors  with  the  various  developments  of  the  cooperative 
movement,  and  have  adapted  them  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
countries  and  classes  with  whom  they  were  dealing.  Some  of  the 
most  noteworthy  will  be  briefly  described. 

The  first  "  people's  kitchen  "  opened  in  Germany  with  the  avowed 
purpose  of  complete  freedom  from  any  eleemosynary  taint,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  was  to  be  kept  free  from  the  clutches  of  the  profiteer, 
was  organized  by  the  Hiilfs-Verein  of  Leipzig  in  1819.  It  was  a 
part  of  the  effort  of  pubhc  spirited  persons  of  different  professions 
to  cope  Avith  the  misery  which  threatened  the  professional  as  well  as 
the  working  classes  as  the  result  of  business  depression.  The  kitchen 
was  placed  under  careful  direction  and  oversight,  and  all  labor  was 
paid.  Staples  were  purchased  in  quantity  and  sold  at  cost  to  the 
members  of  the  Verein.  The  success  of  this  venture  was  proved  by 
the  fact  that  during  its  first  year  no  less  than  122,000  sales  w^ere 
made,  and  in  the  22  years  following  there  was  a  yearly  average  of 
177,562  sales.  Another  kitchen  of  the  same  character  was  opened 
in  1871  in  another  part  of  Leipzig,  whose  sales  annually  exceeded 
400,000.  Vienna,  Zurich,  Hanover,  Berlin,  Halle,  Monaco,  Gratz, 
London,  Eilenberg.  and  Bradford  later  opened  kitchens  on  the  model 
of  the  original  at  Leipzig. 

During  the  mid-century  period  of  economic  distress  which  affected 
all  Europe,  a  kitchen  was  opened  in  Geneva  under  different  auspices. 
A  group  of  60  workingmen,  with  a  social  capital  of  only  60  francs, 
secured  rent-free  quarters  from  the  municipality  in  w^hich  they  estab- 
lished a  common  table  and  served  wholesome,  nutritious  food  at 
minimum  cost.  This  Swiss  organization  continued  for  several  years 
with  great  usefulness  to  its  members,  but  finally  passed  out  of  exist- 
ence.   An  observer  and  well-wisher  thought  the  failure  of  such  a 


AGENCIES  FOS  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS.  15 

worthy  venture  was  the  result  of  the  lack  of  a  solid  basis  of  direction 
and  oversight.  But  the  experiment  lasted  long  enough  for  many 
observers  to  see  the  advantage  of  the  preparation  of  food  in  quantity, 
to  be  sold  to  members  at  cost.  A  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  uni- 
versity at  Grenoble,  France,  doubtless  familiar  with  the  Geneva 
experiment,  established  in  1850  a  similar  association  with  800  mem- 
bers. The  Grenoble  city  council,  as  at  Geneva,  stood  back  of  the, 
exi^eriment,  but  was  only  to  aid  in  case  of  a  deficit.  The  venture 
seems  to  have  proven  successful,  as  no  such  contingency  arose. 

The  organizations  at  Leipzig,  Geneva,  and  Grenoble,  as  well  as  the 
earlier  English  experiments,  wei*e  chiefly  concerned  with  the  eco- 
nomics of  the  food  problem.  In  June,  18G0,  Mr.  Thomas  Corbett, 
of  Glasgow,  in  a  study  of  "  The  Kitchen  of  the  Poor,"  lamented  that 
the  food  question,  much  studied  from  the  standpoint  of  price  and  of 
the  prevention  of  pauperism,  could  not  be  approached  from  tha 
standpoint  of  some  of  the  other  equally  acute  problems  of  the  self- 
respecting  working  classes.  He  instanced  the  possibility  of  a  con- 
nection between  the  effect  of  badly-prepared,  unsatisfying  food  and 
the  increase  of  intemperance.  As  a  result  of  this  careful  study,  the 
first  "  economic  kitchen  "  was  established  in  Glasgow.  The  purpose 
of  this  kitchen  was  to  give  the  self-respecting  worker  attractive  food 
at  a  reasonable  price.  Everything  possible  was  done  to  prevent  the 
venture  being  looked  upon  as  a  philanthrophy  or  charity.  It  was 
started  by  fixing  the  price  of  every  portion  at  a  penny,  to  continue 
if  this  proved  a  "  paying  proposition."  The  first  kitchen  was  opened 
in  September,  1860.  Its  success  was  so  great  that  another  was 
almost  immediately  opened.  As  a  result  of  tlie  success  of  the  Glas- 
gow kitchens,  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  and  other  indus- 
trial cities  made  ventures  along  the  same  line. 

The  founder  of  the  Italian  "  Cucini  popolari "  in  the  exact  sense 
of  the  term  was  S'ignor  Cav.  Bigotti,  of  Modena.  In  the  winter  of 
1879-80,  one  of  great  distress  among  the  poor,  Signor  Bigotti  with  the 
assistance  of  a  committee  of  fellow  citizens  opened  a  kitchen.  Al- 
though its  original  purpose  was  to  aid  the  very  needy,  the  work  was 
extended  to  include  the  better  working  classes.  It  is  a  significant 
fact  that  when  this  organization  is  compared  with  the  "  penny 
kitchens  "  of  Glasgow,  we  find  that  the  founders  of  the  Italian  enter- 
prise do  not  have  to  guard  against  the  "  touchiness  "  in  the  workmen 
as  do  all  interested  in  English  and  Scotch  ventures.  The  Italian 
founders  advocate  private  control  as  "  introducing  a  moral  element 
not  possible  with  an  impersonal  organization,"  and  say  that  "  per- 
sonal cooperation  between  the  giver  and  receiver  gives  the  best  re- 
sults." While  this  is  accepted  in  principle  by  all  the  followers  of 
Saint- Simon  as  a  means  for  the  prevention  of  class  conflict,  in  prac- 


16  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

tice  it  has  often  been  found,  at  least  among  Anglo-Saxons,  that  the 
relation  of  giver  and  receiver  is  hard  to  maintain  without  friction.* 

The  peoples'  kitchens  of  Vienna  are  said  to  be  the  most  important 
of  their  kind  in  Europe,  not  excepting  the  Volksktichen  of  Berlin, 
which  are  a  few  j^ears  older.  In  each  case  the  origin  can  be  traced 
to  the  initiative  of  a  single  person.  Dr.  Joseph  von  Kuhn  in  Vienna 
and  Frau  Lina  Morgenstern  in  Berlin. 

The  plan  of  organization  of  the  Volksktichen  of  Austria  and  Ger- 
many is  much  the  same.  There  is  a  central  committee  made  up  of 
public-spirited  men  and  women  serving  without  pay.  This  commit- 
tee manages  all  the  finances,  and  is  a  court  of  last  appeal.  Each 
kitchen  has  its  own  committee,  the  chairman  being  a  member  of  the 
central  committee.  The  local  committee  manages  the  business  of 
its  kitchen,  keeps  the  books,  etc.,  and  reports  at  stated  intervals  to 
the  central  committee.  In  each  case  the  kitchens  are  capitalized  by 
contributions  from  philanthropic  persons,  and  it  is  expected  that 
all  the  work  of  the  committee  shall  be  unrecompensed.  The  original 
contribution  to  the  Berlin  kitchen,  4,359  thalers  (about  $3,000),  had 
grown  by  profits  and  gifts  to  ^5,000  marks  in  1890.  No  interest  is 
paid  on  this  fund,  nor  on  several  other  funds  used  to  pension  em- 
ployees, etc.  All  superintendence  is  unpaid.  Aside  from  these 
forms  of  indirect  assistance,  the  sale  of  the  food  is  expected  to  sup- 
port the  kitchens.  The  purchase  or  rent  of  a  building,  the  laying  in 
of  stock,  and  the  wages  of  the  paid  help,  are  the  necessary  expenses. 
Frau  Morgenstern  in  one  of  her  reports  says  that  ladies  in  Berlin 
were  eager  to  serve  as  w^aitresses,  for  the  Volkskiichen  Avere  the  first 
outside  activity  permitted  to  women  of  the  better  classes  in  many 
communities  of  the  Teutonic  countries.  The  plans  for  opening  a 
kitchen  are  carefully  w^orked  out  to  the  last  detail,  and  printed,  so 
that,  to  quote  Frau  Morgenstern,  "  the  failure  of  a  kitchen  means 
either  bad  management  or  the  lack  of  need  of  the  kitchen  in  that 
locality."  Even  the  recipes  for  a  kitchen  such  as  the  one  in  Berlin 
may  be  obtained  for  a  few  pfennigs.  But  with  all  the  minute 
Teutonic  care  with  which  details  have  been  worked  out  (directions 
even  being  given  as  to  provision  for  the  cook's  children,  if  slie  has 
any),  these  kitchens  do  not  run  themselves. 

Their  founder,  looking  back  over  25  years  of  service,  comments  : 

In  order  to  be  successful,  they  demand  devotion,  a  great  deal  of  personal 
supervision,  and  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  organizers.  They  require  practi- 
cal understanding,  good  business  management,  with  a  knowledge  of  proper 
location.    And  above  all,  they  demand  tact,  insight,  and  a  love  of  humanity. 

1  Much  of  the  Information  given  above  concerning  the  early  "  peoples'  kitchens  "  was 
obtained  from  a  study  made  by  Prof.  L.  Pagliani,  and  presented  in  1883  at  the  Confcrenza 
pubblica  popolari  della  sede  Piemontese  della  socleta  Italiana  d'igiene. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE   SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS.  17 

Special  interest  attaches  to  the  Avork  in  Vienna  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  from  the  first,  self-supporting.  It  started  on  humble 
lines.  The  great  success  it  achieved  was  due  to  skillful  organization, 
careful  management,  and  infinite  taking  of  pains. 

After  the  Austro-Prussian  war,  when  many  members  of  the  work- 
ing class  starved  to  death  in  Austria,  Dr.  von  Kiihn  gave  up  his  post 
as  a  state  official  to  study  measures  to  lessen  the  evil.  He  began  by 
a  study  of  the  provision  trade.  As  a  result  of  this  study,  he  became 
impressed,  as  had  the  great  German  economist  Schulze-Delitsch  in 
1848,  with  the  exorbitant  profits  of  those  who  sell  to  the  poor.  Dr. 
von  Kiihn  interested  four  friends  in  his  plan,  and  with  them  organ- 
ized an  executive  committee.  One  was  secretary,  another  treasurer, 
while  Dr.  von  Kiihn  became  chairman.  Each  subscribed  1,000 
kronen.  With  this  sum  (about  $1,000)  they  started  a  Volkskiiche 
in  a  section  of  Vienna  where  poverty  was  rife.  Its  success  was  so 
great  that  in  1872,  Dr.  von  Kiihn  gave  up  all  other  work  and  devoted 
all  his  time  and  energy  up  to  his  death  in  1913  to  controlling  and  di- 
recting the  work  of  the  Volkskiichen.  He  bought  the  provisions, 
engaged  the  servants,  and  decided  what  should  be  cooked  and  how. 
He  was  always  in  the  kitchens  when  dinner  was  being  served,  tasting 
every  dish  before  it  was  served,  and  watching  those  who  ate  the  dishes 
to  see  which  they  liked  best.  When  the  Volkskiichen  began  to  sell 
food  for  home  consumption,  they  became  more  popular  than  ever. 

The  Vienna  Volkskiichen,  one  of  which  was  in  operation  in  every 
district  of  the  city  in  1914,  are  worked  on  business  principles.  Pa- 
trons go  as  to  an  ordinary  store  or  restaurant  and  pay  for  what  they 
buy  what  it  costs.  As  the  question  of  what  constitutes  a  "  cost  price  " 
is  still  a  mooted  one  in  all  these  ventures,  it  is  of  interest  to  know 
what  was  included  in  this  successful  kitchen.  The  original  cost  of  the 
ingredients,  the  cost  of  preparation  and  cooking,  a  carefully  calcu- 
lated proportion  of  the  cost  of  lighting,  heating,  and  the  general 
upkeep  of  the  kitchens,  were  considered.  '\\Tienever  it  was  found 
that  there  was  a  profit,  the  price  of  the  food  sold  was  reduced. 
Another  great  difference  from  the  ordinary  commercial  venture  is 
that  no  interest  was  paid  on  the  original  investment  made  by  Dr. 
von  Kiihn  and  his  friends.  The  working  expenses  were  further 
lowered  by  the  fact  that  much  was  done  by  the  ^'  honorary  officials," 
as  in  the  peoples'  kitchens  in  Germany,  where  the  w^ork  has  been  a 
part  of  the  accepted  charity  work  of  every  society  woman,  much  as 
Red  Cross  work  is  in  war  time.  Soon  after  the  opening  of  the  first 
kitchen.  Dr.  von  Kiihn  persuaded  a  friend  to  become  lady  superin- 
tendent. It  was  her  business  to  watch  over  the  matron,  the  cook,  and 
other  servants,  and  to  play  hostess  to  all  comers.  Committees  of 
105584°— 19 3 


18  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

ladies  were  formed  to  act  as  waitresses  in  the  kitchens.  For  years  all 
the  waiting  in  the  kitchens  was  done  by  ladies. 

The  Vienna  kitchens  were  at  first  open  only  from  11.30  a.  m.  to 
2  p.  m.  -A  3-penny  dinner  was  served,  which  consisted  of  a  slice  of 
beef,  mutton,  pork,  or  veal,  with  a  large  dish  of  vegetables.  He  who 
had  only  a  penny  could  have  soup,  vegetables,  or  a  dish  of  savory 
rice  with  bread.  A  woman  familiar  with  the  restaurants  of  England 
states  that  in  191i  a  better  dinner  could  be  bought  in  Vienna  for  a 
fraction  over  5d.  than  in  any  English  restaurant  for  IQd.,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Alexandra  Trust  Dining  Rooms.    (See  below.) 

In  the  15  kitchens  of  Vienna  in  1914  there  were  2,756  seats,  and 
each  seat  could  be  filled  eight  times  during  the  dinner  hours.  Thus 
22,048  men  and  women  could  have  their  dinners  there,  in  addition  to 
the  thousands  who  bought  dinners  they  took  home.  In  the  case  of 
every  successful  kitchen  of  this  type  studied  by  the  writer,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  give  the  two  kinds  of  service.  The  Berlin 
kitchens  started  with  the  avowed  intention  of  serving  no  meals  on  the 
premises.  But  from  the  first  there  were  deserving  patrons  who  pled 
to  be  permitted  to  eat  in  the  chimney  corner,  so  that  more  or  less 
reluctantly  this  service  was  provided.  One  reason  for  this  is  the 
difficulty  in  keeping  the  food  hot.  Patrons  are  visually  expected  to 
provide  their  own  receivers,  which  makes  another  difficulty  for  thosb 
who  stop  on  the  way  to  and  from  their  working  places. 

Prior  to  1914  the  enterprises  in  England  most  closely  resembling 
the  German  and  Austrian  Volksklichen  were  the  Alexandra  Trust 
Dining  Rooms  in  London.  These  were  directly  inspired  by  the  Vien- 
nese Volksklichen.  The  fare  is  more  varied  than  in  many  people's 
kitchens  and  less  suggestive  of  Rumford's  soup  kitchens.  On  one 
dinner  menu  were  found  the  following  items :  Clear  soup,  vegetable 
soup,  beef  venison  with  macaroni,  pork  cutlets  with  salad,  spinach, 
peas,  fruit  pudding,  and  ginger  pudding.  But  the  initial  expenses 
were  much  heavier  than  those  of  their  Austrian  or  German  proto- 
types. It  was  estimated  in  1914  that  to  start  such  a  kitchen  in 
England  would  require  a  capital  of  from  $2,000  to  $2,500. 

The  peoples'  kitchens  have  been  utilized  as  a  partial  solution  of  the 
problem  of  feeding  school  children,  a  duty  which  is  coming  to  the 
fore  in  every  country.  In  1914  the  Vienna  kitchens  provided  dinners 
for  5,420  school  children  at  a  charge  just  under  a  penny  for  soup,  or 
milk  pudding,  or  vegetables,  served  with  a  large  roll.  The  Alex- 
andra Trust  Dining  Rooms  send  out  45,000  meals  for  school  children 
on  school  days  in  addition  to  the  4,000  meals  served  to  other  clients 
fi'om  day  to  day.  A  child  is  charged  less  than  half  the  price  charged 
an  adult.  In  spite  of  this  the  plan  has  for  years  been  self-supj^orting. 
It  is  of  interest  to  Americans  to  note  in  this  connection  that  a  ven- 
ture of  this  type,  the  New  England  Kitchen  of  Boston,  was  launched 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS,  19 

in  1890  by  two  women  wlio  were  close  students  of  the  European 
kitchens,  Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel  and  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards.  The 
original  New  England  Kitchen  was  put  on  its  feet  financially  in  two 
years  chiefly  by  its  proximity  to  an  educational  institution,  to  which 
for  the  first  three  years  of  its  existence  the  kitchen  served  300  lunches 
daily  at  a  cost  of  15  cents  per  person.  It  is  said  that  the  school 
luncheons  served  by  the  New  England  Kitchen  were  "  the  first  Amer- 
ican effort  to  deal  in  a  scientific  way  with  the  nourishment  of  school 
cliildren."  ^ 

The  Peoples'  Kitchens  Associations  are  the  great  emergency  caterers 
for  Austria  and  Germany.  The  Vienna  Association  has  an  engage- 
ment with  the  State  under  which  it  it  responsible  for  the  feeding 
of  10,000  persons  at  24  hours'  notice.  The  equipment  of  an  emer- 
gency kitchen  is  kept  ready  packed  in  a  large  van,  the  food  needed  is 
sent  direct  from  the  central  kitchen  in  air-tight  cans  in  which  food 
will  retain  its  heat  for  24  hours.  Both  the  Red  Cross  and  the  war 
office  draw  on  the  kitchens.  The  German  Volkskiichen,  with  head- 
quarters in  Berlin,  are  similarly  organized.  Almost  immediately 
after  their  founding  in  1866,  they  were  called  upon  to  test  their  or- 
ganization through  the  great  outbreak  of  cholera.  Then  came  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  in  which  their  service  was  so  great  as  to  estab- 
lish them  firmly  as  an-  institution. 

From  the  scanty  information  to  be  gathered  as  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Volkskiichen  in  Germany  and  Austria  under  the  stress  of 
the  great  war,  it  would  seem  that  they  show  greater  differences  than 
in  their  earlier  evolution.  The  taint  of  the  philanthropic  "soup 
kitchen"  seems  to  have  affected  the  kitchens  of  Germany  more  than 
those  of  Austria.  The  German  kitchens  had  a  more  direct  descent  from 
the  Rumford  kitchens,  and  seem  never  to  have  catered  to  individual 
taste  by  a  varied  menu  as  did  the  kitchens  founded  by  Dr.  von  Kiihn. 
Consultation  of  the  booklet  of  directions  for  the  opening  of  a  kitchen 
on  the  Berlin  model  shows  a  paucity  of  recipes  and  of  cooking 
utensils. 

The  cooperative  ventures,  on  the  other  hand,  seem  to  have  gained 
marvelously  from  the  war,  as  shown  by  statistics.  The  new  ventures 
in  Germany  in  cost-price  kitchens  and  aided  workpeoples'  kitchens 
are  aided  by  the  State  and  municipalities.  In  many  cases  town  coun- 
cils provide  capital,  equipment,  and  even  grants.  The  Biirger- 
Zeitung  of  Bremen  made  the  statement  in  June,  1916,  that  the 
kitchens  of  Hamburg  were  receiving  401,000  marks  a  month  from 
the  war  fund.  But  either  from  their  ancient  reputation,  or  from 
other  causes,  it  is  reported  that  the  workers  are  not  attracted  by  the 
kitchens,  and  go  only  as  a  last  resort.    It  is  said  that  in  Hamburg  the 

1  The  Food  of  Working  Women  In  Boston,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union, 
Boston,  1917. 


20  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

manageress  is  assisted  in  maintaining  order  by  trades-union  repre- 
sentatives, which  gives  some  insight  into  the  complication  involved 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  system.  In  all  the  German  war  kitchens, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  the  food  may  be  eaten  on  the  premises 
or  taken  home.  The  most  popular  ones  seem  to  be  those  established 
by  the  large  munition  works  for  their  own  employees,  which  are  run  in 
much  the  same  way  as  those  in  France  (see  p.  12).  In  many  cases  the 
families  of  the  workers  are  permitted  to  eat  at  these  kitchens.  But 
all  German  reports  agree  that  municipal  feeding  has  no  future  in 
Germany.^ 

The  Austrian  tradition  concerning  "  soup  kitchens  "  seems  to  have 
been  less  binding,  or  their  inauguration  as  a  war  measure  was  under 
happier  auspices.  In  May,  1917,  a  central  office  for  the  supply  of 
foodstuffs  was  created,  and  an  association  of  war  kitchens  was 
formed  to  deal  with  the  central  office.  The  group  system,  similar  to 
the  older  experiments  at  Geneva  and  Grenoble,  has  been  utilized. 
Middle-class  kitchens  liave  been  kept  distinct  from  those  run  on 
philanthropic  lines;  there  have  been  public  kitchens  patronized  by 
groups  of  people — not  only  employees  in  the  same  business,  but  pro- 
fessionals, such  as  university  teachers  and  actors.  The  older  form 
of  the  Yolkskiichen  persists,  but  is  kept  strictly  apart  in  administra- 
tion from  the  middle-class  kitchens.  Nevertlieless  this  group  system 
is  said  to  have  aroused  bitter  comment.  Certain  sets  or  cliques  have 
been  favored,  and  if  one  does  not  "  belong  to  "  something  for  public 
feeding,  or  for  supply  of  foodstuffs  at  home,  one  is  out  in  the  cold 
and  stands  in  queues.  But  in  spite  of  these  administrative  evils,  it  is 
clearly  to  be  seen  that  the  gi'oup  system  has  many  advantages.  It 
does  not  entail  so  much  of  "  psychic  shock  "  in  the  change  of  food 
habits,  which  is  apt  to  have  serious  effects  with  older  persons.  More 
than  this,  there  are  group  likes  and  dislikes  in  food,  as  well  as  racial 
differences,  and  it  is  easier  for  a  kitchen  to  cater  to  the  tastes  of  one 
class  only. 

The  experiments  at  communal  feeding,  mass  feeding,  or  of  provid- 
ing food  in  bulk,  which  we  have  considered  so  far,  have  all  been 
concerned  with  the  complete  elimination  of  profit.  As  Ave  have  seen, 
it  is  difficult  in  all  undertakings  which  aim  to  be  other  than  chari- 
ties, to  define  what  shall  be  legitimately  included  in  "cost  price." 
Many  of  these  ventures,  including  the  Volkskiichcn,  eliminate  cer- 
tain legitimate  costs,  such  as  return  on  capital  invested,  so  that  they 
are  technically  charities,  although  perhaps  no  more  so  than  our 
great  educational  institutions.  Frau  Morgenstern  acutely  observes 
in  the  "  History  of  the  Volkskiichen  "  that  these  institutions  give 

1  Communal  Kitchens  In  European  Countries,  by  Anice  L.  Whitney,  Monthly  Review  of 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  June,  1918  ;  see  also  article  on  Administrative  Methods 
in  Other  Countries,  National  Food  Journal,  vol.  1,  No.  15,  Apr.  10,  1918,  pp.  393,  394. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS.  21 

back  their  interest  to  the  state  in  the  prevention  of  epidemics  aris- 
ing from  mahiutrition.  But  there  have  been  ventures  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  wholesome  food  at  a  reduced  price  which  have  paid  their 
way  in  the  commerical  sense.  Among  these  are  the  Christiania 
Steam  Kitchen,  started  in  1857,  and  to-day  as  thriving  as  some  of 
the  great  English  cooperative  stores,  and  the  Kvindernes  Kokken  of 
Copenhagen,  a  shop-girls'  restaurant.  These  two  undertakings  are 
neither  cooperative  nor  philanthropic,  but  are  commercial  agencies, 
though  of  an  unusual  type.^ 

The  Christiania  Steam  Kitchen  was  started  in  1857  by  a  group  of 
business  men — merchants,  an  official,  a  lawyer,  and  the  chief  of  po- 
lice— who  were  anxious  to  help  the  luckless,  but  wise  enough  to 
know  that  they  could  help  by  taking  thought,  and  not  by  lavishing 
money.  Believing  that  they  could  best  help  by  providing  wholesome 
food  at  the  lowest  price  at  which  it  could  be  sold  and  keep  the  place 
of  sale  absolutely  self-supporting,  the}^  started  a  stock  company 
with  a  working  capital  of  3,483  pounds,  and  opened  the  steam 
kitchen.  They  enacted  that  not  more  than  6  per  cent  interest  should 
be  paid  on  the  capital  invested.  They  built  the  kitchen  in  the  middle 
of  the  town,  and  installed  an  expert  cook.  The  purchasing  was  done 
by  the  members  of  the  company. 

Although  the  place  proved  popular,  it  ran  with  a  deficit  until 
1866,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  attract  middle-class  custom  by 
opening  a  department  in  which  uncooked  food  was  sold.  This 
proved  such  a  success  that  the  price  of  cooked  provisions  could  be 
reduced  without  incurring  a  loss.  The  kitchen  was  twice  enlarged, 
and  has  now  been  rebuilt.  It  is  a  huge  place,  with  a  paid  general 
manager,  a  paid  manager  for  each  department,  and  other  paid 
officials,  all  of  whom  are  under  the  direction  of  a  board  of  directors 
chosen  by  the  shareholders.  In  1914  working  expenses  were  only 
8.7  per  cent  of  the  turnover.  Fifteen  hundred  men  and  women  ate 
dinner  there  every  day ;  100  more  bought  in  the  cooked  food  depart- 
ment dinners  to  be  eaten  at  home. 

The  Kvindernes  Kokken  of  Copenhagen,  a  shopgirls'  restaurant 
which  serves  meals  daily  to  from  1,200  to  1,800  women  beside  those 
who  buy  their  food  and  take  it  home,  is  also  a  business  undertaking, 
not  a  charity.  It  was  planned  entirely,  and  in  1914  was  still  di- 
rected, by  two  lower  middle  class  women  who  had  thoughtfully 
watched  the  failure  of  a  philanthropic  venture  started  with  the 
same  purpose.  They  took  over  the  plant  as  a  going  concern,  and 
paid  for  its  fittings  by  installments.  They  employed  as  cooks 
highly  trained  experts  in  their  craft.    Their  assistants  are  appren- 

1  Article  by  Edith  Sellers  in  The  10th  Century  and  After,  76,  No.  453  (November,  1914)  ; 
also  Inexpensive  Restaurants,  by  Helen  W.  Atwater,  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  voU 
VIII,  No.  6  (June,  191G). 


22  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

tices  who  go  to  the  Kokken  as  to  a  technical  school,  receiving  no 
wages.  The  w^aitresses  are  daughters  of  pastors,  teachers,  and  offi- 
cials. The  rooms  are  carefully  and  tastefully  furnished.  In  each 
dressing  room  there  is  an  official,  chosen  for  kindliness.  In  such 
ways  is  the  tone  of  the  establishment  maintained. 

The  Kokken  opens  at  9  a.  m.  The  place  is  crowded  between  11 
and  1,  and  again  between  5  and  6.  No  man  is  admitted  except  as 
the  guest  of  a  woman.  There  is  a  choice  between  a  la  carte  serv- 
ice and  a  regular  dinner,  which  consists  of  two  courses,  good  in 
quality  and  unlimited  in  quantity.  In  1914:  such  a  dinner  as  veal 
with  new  potatoes  and  an  excellent  sauce,  bread,  apricots,  and  milk 
cost  14  cents.  For  4  cents  more  soup  was  added,  and  a  cup  of 
coffee  for  2f  cents. 

Both  of  these  ventures  in  low-priced  catering  have  probably  been 
affected  by  the  war,  which  has  very  seriously  altered  the  cost  of 
living  in  the  Scandinavian  countries. 

The  first  public  kitchens  in  Denmark,  as  might  be  expected,  were 
not  charitable  in  any  sense  of  the  word.  Both  Denmark  and  Sweden 
are  said  to  prefer  the  delivery  of  cooked  food  at  home  to  service  in 
restaurants. 

Such  a  survey  as  has  been  undertaken  in  these  pages  makes  it 
evident  that  the  idea  of  mass  feeding  and  of  the  preparation  of 
wholesome  food  for  consumption  in  the  home  at  a  reduced  price 
was  not  new  in  Europe  in  1914.  The  machinery  of  such  ventures 
had  been  worked  out,  and  a  study  of  cheap  and  nutritious  foods 
had  been  made.  Social  workers  had  repeatedly  urged  their  adoption 
as  a  solution  of  other  problems  than  those  purely  economic.  The 
accelerated  absorption  of  w^omen  into  the  war  industries  merely 
intensified  a  condition  to  which  economists  and  sociologists  had 
been  calling  attention  for  half  a  century,  a  condition  which  was 
already  apparent  to  thinkers  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  whose  amelioration  was  to  wait  for  slower  processes 
of  adjustment  than  those  advocated  by  Fourier  and  Owen. 

Opposition  to  the  more  ambitious  schemes  for  the  preparation  of 
food  in  bulk  has  usually  included  some  statement  that  a  definite 
movement  of  this  nature  would  accelerate  the  decay  of  family  life. 
This  is  a  serious  charge,  if  true.  Sociological  research  has  made 
it  clear  that  the  component  group  we  call  the  family  is  "  the  cradle 
of  our  social  ideals  and  the  natural  environment  for  the  child,  and 
that  a  normal  family  life  is  at  the  basis  of  social  life  in  general." 
But  the  development  of  industrial  life  makes  it  increasingly  evi- 
dent that  it  is  to  the  need  for  woman  in  the  life  outside  the  home 
that  we  must  look  for  the  causation  of  the  decay  of  family  in- 
dustry, and  that  the  weighing  of  the  economic  value  of  woman's 
work  will  finally  be  a  deciding  factor  in  the  changes  in  family 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS,  23 

life  to  meet  the  new  order.  If  a  radical  change  in  the  accepted 
way  of  insuring  wholesome  food  to  persons  of  scanty  or  moderate 
means  should  emerge  from  the  present  crisis,  a  change  which  would 
touch  the  most  serious  problems  of  poverty — the  feeding  of  chil- 
dren, the  nutrition  of  the  mother,  the  care  of  the  aged  and  orphans — 
it  might  carry  with  it  a  solution  of  other  problems  involving  the 
happiness  and  unity  of  families.  It  may  be  that  wife  desertion, 
abandonment  of  children,  crimes  against  property,  even  murder,  are 
often  traceable  to  scanty  and  poor  food,  a  contributor  to  the  misery 
of  the  poor.  If  the  people's  kitchens  could  be  made  to  render  more 
abundant  and  wholesome  the  nutrition  of  poor  families,  and  at  the 
same  time  lighten  the  load  resting  on  the  shoulders  of  the  wife  and 
mother,  there  is  no  doubt  we  should  increase  the  mutual  respect  and 
affection  of  their  members.  And  if  it  were  not  for  the  blow  to  the 
pride  of  the  great  middle  class,  as  much  might  be  said  of  it.  It  is  a 
recognized  fact  among  students  of  nutrition  that  it  is  not  always 
lack  of  money  which  prevents  the  serving  of  wholesome  food.  Miss 
Sellers,  an  Englishwoman,  ventures  the  statement  that  the  man  of  the 
lower  middle  class  in  England  is  perhaps  the  poorest  nourished,  and 
Arnold  Bennett  has  made  plain  the  fallacy  upon  which  English  and 
Americans  alike  have  traded,  that  housewives  are  "  born  "  and  need 
not  be  trained.  It  may  be  the  beginning  of  a  better  day  for  others 
than  the  very  poor  when  some  agency  other  than  an  ignorant  woman 
with  no  taste  for  cooking  is  left  to  cope  with  what  is  coming  to  be 
seen  as  a  science — the  choice  and  preparation  of  a  balanced  diet.  Dr. 
Vernon  Kellogg  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the  very  in- 
teresting developments  of  the  war  has  been  the  establishment  of  com- 
munal kitchens  for  the  middle  class  which  pay  their  own  expenses 
and  are  recognized  as  of  the  greatest  convenience  to  their  patrons. 

But  no  rationalizing  forces  or  philanthropic  influences  lie  back  of 
the  present  spread  of  communal  kitchens  in  Europe.  They  are  the 
outhgrowth  of  sheer  necessity.  All  that  philanthrophy  or  the  social 
sciences  can  be  said  to  have  done  was  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the 
people  for  them  and  to  have  worked  out  methods,  such  as  the  Volks- 
kiichen  and  the  cooperating  stores.  The  introduction  of  rationing, 
the  difficulty  of  getting  food  and  the  annoying  waiting  in  queues, 
and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  lack  of  fuel,  were  primary  causes.  Their 
success  has  depended  upon  the  fact  that  one  could  get  more  value  for 
the  food  card  at  the  kitchen  than  one  could  get  at  home.  Whenever 
the  rations  are  generous,  it  is  said  that  the  attendance  at  the  German 
kitchens  falls  off,  in  spite  of  facilities  for  the  delivery  of  cooked 
meals.  A  picture  of  the  situation  in  Austria  is  given  in  an  article 
entitled  "  How  the  Viennese  Live,"  written  by  Leonhard  Adelt  from 


24  agejntcies  for  the  sale  of  cooked  foods. 

Vienna  to  the  Berliner  Tageblatt,  and  printed  in  the  issue  of  Jul}''  9, 
1918 : 

The  supplying  of  Austria  rests  with  state  controlled  economic  groups  which 
regulate  consumption  and  sales,  and  the  Food  Centrals,  which,  like  the  War 
Grain  Exchanges  establishment  and  tlie  Fodder  Central  or  like  the  Oezeg 
(Austrian  Central  Buying  Association),  and  the  Geos  (vegetable  and  food 
supply  establishment),  are  under  the  control  of  the  imperial  and  royal  office 
for  the  nation's  food.     ♦     «     ♦ 

As  in  all  the  warring  countries  the  economic  and  social  clashes  have  become 
sharper  in  Austria.  The  piling  up  of  wealth  on  the  part  of  a  small  group  is 
accompanied  by  the  rapid  loss  of  the  middle  classes  and  the  helplessness  of  the 
lowest  class  as  a  result  of  the  decreased  purchasing  power  of  money.  For  the 
benefit  of  the  poorest  class  the  Government  some  time  ago  established  a  credit 
for  needy  of  more  than  $60,000,000.  Meals  and  cheap  war  kitchens  for  the  mid- 
dle class  and  the  workers  complete  the  State's  aid.* 

1  Selections  from  a  translation  of  the  article  printed  in  the  New  York  Times.  Sunday, 
Sept.  1,  1918. 


THE  NATIONAL  KITCHENS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

A  chronological  study  of  the  preparation  of  the  conservative  Brit- 
ish middle  class  for  the  idea  of  communal  cooking  will  be  enlighten- 
ing to  the  American  reader.  Credit  for  the  success  of  the  plan  rests 
with  the  food  controller,  Lord  Rhondda,  "  one  of  the  few  great  men 
the  war  discovered." 

Under  Lord  Ehondda's  direction,  a  food  economy  campaign  was 
inaugurated.  Sir  Arthur  Yapp,  national  secretary  of  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  was  appointed  director  of  food  economy  in  the  ministry  of 
food  in  September,  1917.  It  was  announced  that  the  campaign  was 
to  be  directed  not  only  to  the  serious  situation  confronting  the 
nation  at  the  moment,  but  to  the  situation  after  the  war.  The  cam- 
paign was  to  utilize  all  existing  machinery,  churches  and  chapels, 
universities  and  schools,  corporations,  members  of  Parliament, 
women's  societies,  etc.  In  the  same  month  the  ministry  of  food  began 
the  publication  of  the  National  Food  Journal,  whose  avowed  purpose 
w  as  "  informational  and  educational."  In  the  first  issue,  September 
12, 1917,  the  vital  necessity  of  food  economy  was  shown  to  be  not  only 
temporary.  Statistics  were  quoted  as  to  the  decrease  in  the  world's 
meat  producing  animals.  Economies  could  be  effected  by  people 
eating  less,  by  the  elimination  of  waste,  and  by  the  use  of  all  food- 
stuffs to  the  greatest  nutritive  advantage.  The  number  contained 
this  paragraph  relative  to  the  central  kitchen  movement,  already 
under  way : 

Attention  has  been  given  to  the  reduction  of  food  consumption  by  teaching 
improved  Ifitchen  economy,  as  the  waste  due  to  ill-chosen  and  ill-prepared  food 
among  the  wage-earning  section  of  the  population  has  always  been  consider- 
able. The  most  hopeful  line  of  approach  has  been  found  to  consist  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  central  or  communal  kitchens  where  cooked  food  is  served  and 
demonstrations  are  given  showing  how  food  can  be  prepared  with  the  maxi- 
mum of  nutrition  and  the  minimum  of  waste. 

In  the  "issue  of  the  Journal  for  September  26,  it  was  again  pointed 
out  that  the  danger  of  the  food  situation  lay  not  so  much  in  the  sub- 
marine peril  as  in  the  world  shortage  of  cereals,  meats,  and  fats; 
and  the  high  prices  were  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  England  was  pay- 
ing for  her  important  imported  food  stuffs  more  than  double  what 
she  paid  before  the  war.    The  Daily  Telegraph  was  quoted : 

The  fundamental  fact  of  the  food  situation  is  that  the  supplies  of  most  com- 
modities, not  only  in  this  country,  but  all  the  world  over,  fall  below  the  usual 
105584°— 19 4  25 


26  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

production.  This  state  of  things  would  not  be  altered  if  peace  were  declared 
to-morrow,  and  will  certainly  exist  for  some  time  after  the  war  has  come  to 
an  end. 

To  meet  the  situation,  the  unnecessai^y  middle-man  must  be  elimi- 
nated. Lord  Rhondda  recommended — always  a  strong  point  with 
him — the  utilization  of  existing  agencies  under  license  and  control, 
and  under  the  supervision  of  local  food  controllers  appointed  by 
the  local  authorities. 

Before  the  inauguration  of  the  food  economy  campaign  the  minis- 
try of  food  had  been  experimenting  with  central  kitchens,  lat^r  de- 
fined as  "kitchens  established  to  buy  raw  foodstuffs  and  to  sell  cooked 
foods  with  a  view  to  conserving  the  foodstuffs  of  the  country, 
especially  its  cereals,  that  is  to  say,  its  wlieat  and  wheat  substitutes." 
A  model  kitchen  was  opened  on  May  31,  1917,  by  the  ministry  in 
Westminster  Bridge  Eoad,  London.  Even  before  this  date,  local 
committees  had  been  experimenting  so  widely  that  an  Englishwoman, 
wi^iting  on  the  subject  in  June,  prophesied  that  "  nine  out  of  ten  will 
fail.  The  tenth  may  scramble  through,  more  by  good  luck  than  good 
management."  This  critic  believed  in  the  principle  of  the  kitchens, 
hut  not  in  the  method  of  organization  and  control  at  first  in  vogue, 
when  the  kitchens  were  still  "  muddling  tlirough."  She  writes :  "  They 
can  reopen  later  and  be  conducted  under  proper  control  with  the 
valuable  assistance  of  catering  and  domestic  science  departments, 
and  with  trained  workers  instead  of  amateurs." 

But  not  all  the  first  trial  kitchens  were  failures.  Hammei'smith, 
whose  ma3^or  was  the  first  to  subsidize  the  equipment  of  a  public 
kitchen  out  of  the  rates,  had  a  central  Idtchen  in  operation  from 
March-,  1917,  and  in  February,  1918,  reported  9  depots.  Two  kitchens 
opened  in  May  in  West  Ham  were  so  successful  that  three  others 
were  added  with  satisfactory  results.  Up  to  December,  1917,  these 
five  kitcliens  served  nearly  50,000  meals  to  all  classes  of  people, 
at  an  average  of  5d.  each.  At  these  kitchens,  the  prices  vary  from  a 
penny  to  six  pence  per  portion.  In  addition  to  providing  food  to  bo 
taken  away  by  the  people  for  consmnption  at  home,  the  original  in- 
tention of  all  the  kitchens,  there  was  such  a  demand  for  dining  rooms 
in  connection  Avith  the  kitchen  that  two  were  built,  one  for  each  sex. 

On  the  basis  of  the  experience  of  the  ministry  of  food  with  ex- 
perimental kitchens  and  Idtchens  opened  by  local  authorities,  a 
memorandum  was  prepared  in  the  autumn  of  1917,  defining  the  ob- 
jects for  which  it  was  intended  that  central  kitchens  should  be  estab- 
lished, and  setting  out  methods  of  establislmient  and  management.^ 

It  is  recommended  as  a  general  rule  that  central  kitchens  be  estab- 
lished only  for  the  prepartion  and  supply  of  cooked  food  to  be  con- 

»  National  Food  Journal,  vol.  1,  No.  G,  Nov.  28,  1917. 


AGEi!TCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  2T 

Slimed  off  the  premises;  but  it  would  sometimes  be  advisable,  where 
there  is  a  large  and  populous  area  to  be  served,  to  arrange  in  addi- 
tion for  a  number  of  distributing  depots.  Kitchens  were  to  be  self- 
supporting  as  far  as  possible.  They  should  be  free  from  the  element 
of  charity  and  so  conducted  that  any  pei*son  might  use  them  with 
self-respect. 

By  the  close  of  1917  it  was  apparent  that  assistance  in  the  initial 
cost  of  equipment  was  necessary.  In  a  speech  delivered  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  communal  kitchen  in  North  Woolwich  Eoad,  Silvertown, 
West  Ham,  Lord  Rhondda  said  that  "orders  had  been  issued  em- 
powering local  authorities  to  establish  and  control  kitchens,  and 
grants  would  be  made  to  tiie  authorities  which  advanced  the  money." 
When  the  Marylebone  Borough  council  decided  in  December,  1917, 
to  establish  and  equip  a  central  municipal  kitchen  for  cooking  and 
supplying  food  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  borough,  it  was  with  tlie 
understanding  that  the  Government  would  contribute  25  per  cent  of 
the  cost,  and  advance  by  way  of  loan  for  the  establishment  of  tha 
kitchen  another  25  per  cent,  free  of  interest.^ 

All  was  not  clear  sailing  for  the  ministry  of  food  in  its  dealing 
with  local  boards.  Some  were  too  ambitious.  Under  date  of  No- 
vember 27,  1917,  in  the  London  Times  there  appeared  the  following: 
The  St.  Pancras  food  control  committee  has  expressed  tlie  opinion  to  the 
ministry  that  if  premises  such  as  large  restaurants,  hotels,  clubs,  and  public 
institutions  were  utilized  for  the  cooking  of  meals,  and  if  a  suitable  traasi)ort 
scheme  were  arranged  to  convey  the  cooked  food  to  municipal  distributing  cen- 
ters, public  feeding  on  a  large  scale  could  be  quickly  organized  without  having 
to  wait  for  new  plant  and  adaptation  of  buildings. 

This  attempt  to  start  on  the  grand  scale  touched  on  what  was  to  bo 
one  of  the  most  puzzling  questions,  how  to  deal  with  local  caterers. 
It  took  all  the  patience  and  tact  of  both  Lord  Rhondda  and  his  able 
assistant  and  successor,  Mr.  Clynes,  to  deal  with  this  problem.  In 
actual  practice,  it  is  probably  true  that  much  friction  and  wasto 
could  have  been  avoided  if,  in  the  framing  of  schemes,  local  commit- 
tees had  taken  account  of  the  catering  facilities  in  the  area,  had  con- 
sulted with  the  proprietors,  and  agreed  upon  a  plan  whereby  all  tho 
establishments  in  the  neighborhood  could  be  brought  together  into 
one  comprehensive  system.  That  some  attempts  to  placate  local 
dealers  were  made  is  evident.  The  Marylebone  Borough  council,  in 
the  announcement  of  its  plan  for  a  kitchen,  emphasized  the  state- 
ment that  "  there  will  not  be  any  attempt  to  undersell  local  traders." 
The  founder  of  a  chain  of  restaurants  well  known  in  London  com- 
plained bitterly  in  the  columns  of  the  press  that  the  national  kitchens 
were  "  cruelly  unjust  to  the  existing  caterer,  who  is  responsible  for 
leaseholds  and  has  the  whole  of  his  capital  invested  in  his  business.'' 

I  London  Times,  Dec.  28,  1917,  p.  3. 


28  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

"  The  promoters  of  the  national  kitchens,"  he  said,  "  have  a  prefer- 
ence in  regard  to  marketing,  and  enjoy  a  priority  in  respect  of  staff, 
utensils,  stoves,  boilers,  and  other  matters  connected  with  output." 
As  early  as  January,  1918,  he  had  suggested  to  the  ministry  of  food 
that  they  should  take  over  the  working-class  restaurants.  In  his 
reply,  Mr.  Clynes  has  said,  as  he  had  said  repeatedly  in  response  to 
parliamentary  inquiries  on  this  subject:  "Our  object  is  to  supple- 
ment the  efforts  of  others,  and  to  meet  a  very  pressing  war-time 
demand."^ 

In  view  of  this  a  statement  was  later  made  in  the  press  that  the 
food  controller  had  refused  to  establish  national  kitchens  in  com- 
munities where  the  borough  is  amply  catered  for  with  regard  to  the 
supply  of  cooked  food  at  reasonable  prices.  The  ministry  was  ready 
to  consider  a  scheme  whereby  caterers  could  be  supplied  with  raw 
materials  and  appliances  on  a  reasonable  basis.  But  if  this  were 
done  they  must  limit  their  prices  and  their  profits  in  the  interests  of 
the  public.^ 

The  experiments  with  central  kitchens  in  1917  had  raised  other 
objections.  In  spite  of  Lord  Rhondda's  statements  as  to  the  vital 
necessity  of  the  kitchens,  it  was  much  discussed  whether  there  was 
a  real  need  for  them.  Both  the  food  controller  and  the  director  of 
food  economy  repeatedly  urged  upon  local  committees  the  impor- 
tance of  being  prepared  with  the  necessary  arrangements  for  feeding 
masses  of  the  people,  should  there  be  any  serious  breakdown  of  food 
supplies.  But  in  their  reports  on  the  subject  some  local  committees 
insisted  that  there  was  no  poverty  apparent  in  their  boroughs ;  that 
the  food  shortage  was  not  sufficiently  acute  to  make  the  kitchens  an 
urgent  and  immediate  necessity ;  and  that  owing  to  the  high  rate  of 
wages  the  high  prices  of  commodities  were  not  being  felt  as  they 
would  be  in  normal  times. 

In  spite  of  objectors,  the  success  of  the  experimental  kitchens  and 
the  food  economy  campaign  had  led  by  January,  1917,  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  communal  kitchens  at  more  than  60  centers,  including 
Leeds,  Manchester,  Sheffield,  Gloucester,  Reading,  Oxford,  Ipswich, 
Chester,  Dorking,  Bailey,  Halifax,  Croyden,  Broadstairs,  Bourne- 
mouth, Cheltenham,  Folkestone,  Middlesbrough,  Sunderland,  Tor- 
quay, Welshpool,  Watford,  West  Hartlepool,  and  in  many  of  the 
London  boroughs.  But  the  need  was  too  pressing  to  wait  for  local 
authorities  to  take  the  initiative.  The  propaganda  for  voluntary 
economy  was  discontinued.  In  January,  1918,  Alderman  C.  F. 
Spencer,  of  Halifax,  a  successful  business  man,  was  asked  by  Lord 
Rhondda  to  come  to  the  ministry  of  food  and  take  up  at  once  the 

1  See  further,  National  Food  Journal,  vol.  1,  No.  21   (July  10,  1918),  p.  575. 
■Municipal  Journal,  No.  1328  (July  12,  1918),  p.  729. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  29 

task  of  developing  the  branch  of  the  department  which  dealt  with 
communal  kitchens.  On  February  1  Mr.  Spencer  gave  particulars 
of  his  schemes  for  setting  up  kitchens  in  places  outside  of  London, 
including  the  following :  ^ 

Transport  of  food. — Electric  kitchens,  on  the  trams,  in  which  the  food  would 
be  kept  hot;   and  also  to  use  gas-bag  motors   and  traveling  kitchens.    His  > 
scheme  will  even  provide  for  keeping  warm  small  quantities  of  food  bought  by 
individuals     ♦     *     *.    The  good  will  of  the  people  was  needed  when  it  came 
to  a  change  in  the  national  habits  of  feeding  the  community. 

The  advantage  and  utility  of  national  kitchens  lay  in  the  fact  that  they 
would — 

(1)  Secure  economy' in  food  and  in  use  of  fuel,  considerably  reduce  waste  of 
foods;  secure  economy  in  soap,  towels,  crockery,  and  other  kitchen  necessities. 

(2)  Secure  a  reasonably  adequate  supply  of  food  at  comparatively  low 
prices;  place  within  the  reach  of  the  working  classes  wholesome  food  instead 
of  "makeshift"  meals;  and  obviate  many  of  the  difficulties  of  buying,  with 
its  attendant  waiting  and  disappointment. 

(3)  Release  many  women  from  the  ardudusness  of  domestic  life,  and  perhaps 
enable  some  of  them  to  take  up  war  employment. 

(4)  Free  the  shops  of  many  customers  whose  demands  are  unorganized,  thus 
creating  distributing  difficulties. 

(5)  Afford  equal  opportunities  for  all  classes  to  obtain  nutritious  food  pre- 
pared on  modern  hygienic  principles. 

(6)  Afford  opportunities  for  reducing  the  staffs  of  retailers,  refreshment 
house  proprietors,  etc.,  and  reduce  consumption  of  paper,  etc.,  used  in  parcel 
distributions ;  and  allay  discontent  in  munitions  areas. 

(7)  Individual  cooking  was  waste  of  labor,  health,  material,  and  energy. 
A  thousand  homes  with  a  thousand  gas  and  coal  fires  resulted  in  a  multiplicity 
of  operations  essentially  wasteful. 

In  the  same  interview,  Mr.  Spencer  suggested  that  cooperative 
effort  between  the  local  authorities  and  eating  house  proprietors  in 
large  provincial  towns  might  lead  to  a  big  system  of  "  national  res- 
taurants." (This  forecast  is  interesting  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
restaurant  movement  was  still  growing  when  the  armistice  was 
signed.  See  p.  42.)  It  was  expected  that  in  the  new  ventures  which 
were  to  combine  kitchen  and  restaurant,  25  per  cent  of  the  food 
cooked  would  be  consumed  on  the  premises  and  75  per  cent  be  taken 
away.  It  was  hoped  that  the  public  would  come  to  use  the  kitchens 
as  they  use  municipal  trams,  gas,  and  electricity. 

The  first  public  order  concerning  national  kitchens  was  issued 
February  25,  1918.  It  had  become  evident  that  the  food  regulations 
resulted  in  hotels  and  restaurants  reducing  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  food  given  to  their  customers,  but  without  any  reduction  in  prices ; 
in  some  instances  prices  were  actually  increased.^  Seeing  that  this 
situation  was  likely  to  become  an  actual  hardship  the  ministry  of 

»  London  Times,  Feb.  5,  p.  9. 

*  National  Kitchens  and  Restaurants  in  England,  by  Phillip  B.  Kennedy,  London,  July 
19,  Commerce  Reports  No.  185,  Aug.  8,  1918. 


30  AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

food  took  tlie  step  to  assist  tlie  public.  This  first  order,  "  Defense  of 
the  realm  act,  1918,  No.  223,"  enabled  the  food  controller  to  establisli 
national  kitchens.  This  was  supplemented  by  local  authorities  food 
control  order  No.  2,  1918,  of  February  25,  and  statutory  rules  and 
orders  of  February  26,  1918.  Later,  the  ministry  of  food  issued  a 
booklet  explaining  to  local  authorities  the  procedure  to  be  followed 
in  establishing  national  Idtchens.^ 

Under  the  new  order,  the  number  of  kitchens  has  increased  rapidly. 
In  November,  1917,  there  were  in  existence  161  central  kitchens;  in 
March,  1918,  250,  and  in  July,  about  1,000  national  kitchens.  Only 
tlie  thTee  or  four  kitehens  opened  as  experiments  were  under  tlie  di- 
rect management  of  the  ministry. 

The  original  agreement  between  the  local  authorities  and  the  minis- 
try of  food  with  reference  to  the  financing  of  the  kitchens  was,  that 
25  per  cent  of  the  initial  capital  outlay  would  be  given  by  the  min- 
istry, 25  per  cent  lent,  and  50  per  cent  was  to  be  raised  by  the  local 
authority,  which  was  empowered  by  the  local  government  board  to 
charge  to  the  rates  any  necessary  expenses.  But  in  response  to  repre- 
sentations for  an  alteration  regarding  this  grant,  the  Treasury  agreed 
in  June,  that  instead  of  a  grant  of  25  per  cent  followed  by  a  possible 
loan  of  25  per  cent,  the  imperial  exchequer  would  grant  a  loan  free  of 
interest  for  th«  full  amount  of  the  approved  capital  outlay  on  the 
establishment  of  a  kitchen,  such  loan  to  be  repaid  by  the  local  au- 
thority by  10  annual  installments,  the  amount  to  be  secured  by  a  stat- 
utory mortgage  which  the  local  authority  would  be  authorized  to 
give.2 

In  May,  1918,  it  was  announced  that  a  districting  scheme  had 
been  formulated  for  the  establishment  of  national  kitchens,  the  dis- 
tricts to  coincide  with  the  areas  of  the  Food  Commissioners.  A  divi- 
sional director  was  to  be  held  responsible  for  carrying  out  the  national 
policy  in  each  district.  The  kitchen  at  Poplar  was  to  be  taken  as  a 
model.* 

Inasmuch  as  the  Poplar  kitchen  has  been  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  the  British  national  kitchens,  the  description  of  it  may  prove  of 
value.  The  Bow  swimmings  baths,  Eoman  Eoad,  Poplar,  were  taken 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  most  interesting  of  the  innovations  connected 
with  it  was  that  a  restaurant  was  arranged  at  which  food  from  the 
kitchen  could  be  eaten.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  original  pur- 
pose of  the  kitchens  was  to  provide  food  to  be  eaten  in  the  home. 
But  it  had  been  found  necessary  to  provide  for  people  who  had  to 

1  Handbook  of  National  Kitchens  and  Restaurants,  National  Kitchen  Division,  Ministry 
of  Food,  London,  1918, 

'  Municipal  Journal,  No.  1326,  June  28,  1918,  p.  687. 
'London  Times,  May  29,  1918. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SAIJ3  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  51 

eat  at  hotels  and  restaurants,  on  whom  the  food  regulations  had 
proved  to  be  a  particular  hardship. 

The  cooking  in  the  Poplar  kitchen  is  done  by  steam,  for  which  ap- 
pliances were  already  installed,  and  by  electricity.  The  electric 
cooking  apparatus  comprises  a  treble-oven  electric  range,  a  tliree^ 
conipartment  baker's  oven,  a  carving  table  and  hot  cupboard,  seven\1 
boiling  plates,  a  couple  of  grills,  etc.  Four  boilers,  eacli  with  n 
capacity  of  24  gallons,  are  available  for  preparing  soups,  stews,  and 
stock.  This  kitchen  is  open  11 :30  a.  m.  to  1.45  p.  m.  and  5  to  S 
p.  m.  It  began  in  March,  1918,  to  serve  about  1,000  portions  daily, 
but  in  May  the  portions  had  increased  to  2,300. 

Not  only  have  residents  in  this  part  of  Poplar  welcomed  tlie  opportunity  of 
obtaining  cheap,  well-cooked  raeals,  but  the  employees  of  neighJ^oring  works, 
school  teachers,  and  others  go  to  the  kitchen  for  their  midday  meal,  and  a  large 
number  of  children  call  at  the  baths  for  their  dinner  on  their  way  home.  la 
many  cases  women  bring  their  dishes  soon  after  the  kitchen  has  opened,  and, 
by  getting  dinners  ready  cooked,  save  fuel,  money,  and  labor. 

The  daily  bill  of  fare  is,  generally,  as  follows: 

DINNER  11.30  A.  M.  TO  1.45  P.   M. 

Soup : Id.  per  half  plot 

Fish  pie 8d. 

Meat  roll 4d. 

Roast  beef  or  mutton,  per  portion 4d.  or  Gd. 

Greens Id. 

Potatoes Id. 

Milk  pudding l^d. 

Fig  pudding l^d. 

SUPPEK   5    TO   8    p.    M. 

Fish  roll 3d. 

Shepherd's  pie 4d. 

Cold  roast  beef 4d. 

Pickles Jd. 

Stewed  apples  and  custard l^d. 

Suet  pudding ,  lid.' 

This  kitchen  reported  in  May,  that  after  provision  had  been  made 
for  cost  of  management,  for  estimated  rental  value,  interest  on  re- 
demption of  capital,  renewal  of  plant  and  contingent  liabilities,  a 
profit  could  be  made  with  the  prices  quoted  above  at  the  rate  of  from 
40  to  50  per  cent  per  annum.  With  a  system  like  this,  waste  can  be 
avoided,  a  considerable  saving  effected  in  fuel  and  labor,  and  good 
nourishing  food  provided.  Expenses  are  reduced  at  the  Poplar 
kitchen  by  the  system  of  service.  Tickets  for  a  meal  are  bought  at  an 
office.  In  exchange  for  them  the  food  is  obtained  at  a  long  table  and 
brought  with  knife  and  fork  and  spoon  to  the  tables.  Attendants 
clear  the  tables  of  the  used  plates,  cups,  and  saucers  (the  cafeteria 

I  London  Times,  Mar.  27,  1918,  p.  8. 


32  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

method).  A  penny  extra  is  paid  for  restaurant  service.  Those  who 
took  the  food  home  originally  brought  their  own  vessels  and  were 
charged  the  eating-house  prices.  More  recently  special  containers 
have  been  supplied  by  some  of  the  kitchens,  for  the  use  of  which  the 
patron  makes  a  small  deposit. 

The  equipment  of  the  national  kitchens  is  constantly  improving. 
Since  they  were  begun,  large  firms  have  been  working  on  the  stand- 
ardization of  the  utensils,  until  now,  any  good  trade  journal  has  ad- 
vertisements for  the  equipment  of  these  kitchens.  The  standard 
number  of  patrons  is  1,000.  The  experience  and  advice  of  some  of 
the  pioneers  in  the  work  is  interesting  and  valuable,  to  show  the 
problems  already  solved,  as  well  as  those  awaiting  solution.  One  of 
the  early  successful  kitchens  was  that  at  Reading,  which  was  able  to 
feed  5,000  children  sent  from  London  in  the  winter  of  1917-18  to 
escape  the  air  raids. 

Central  kitchens  for  the  provision  of  meals  for  necessitous  school 
children  had  been  established  in  Heading  in  1907.  Of  the  two  central 
kitchens  in  existence,  it  was  decided  to  use  the  principal  as  the  first 
communal  kitchen,  which  was  opened  September  3,  1917.  It  is  sit- 
uated in  a  thickly  populated  district  and  is  a  part  of  a  disused  school 
building. 

A  large  room  is  divided  into  a  kitchen,  25  by  20  feet,  and  a  boiler 
room.  In  a  room  adjoining  200  children  can  be  fed.  There  are 
packing  and  distributing  rooms  on  the  gi'ound  floor,  and  a  large  store 
on  the  upper  floor. 

The  original  furnishing  of  the  kitchen  consisted  of  three  steam 
coppers  of  80,  60,  and  55  gallons  capacity,  respectively.  A  gas  stove 
was  hired  from  the  local  gas  company.  A  large  teak  sink  for  wash- 
ing up,  and  a  white  glazed  sink  for  the  preparation  of  vegetables, 

etc.,  were  provided. 

List  of  Ktensils. 

Approximate  cost 
Description.  (England,  1918). 

2  Lovelock  mincers,  No.  4 each 34s. 

1  potato   chipper 20s. 

1  bread    machine 30s. 

1  weighing  machine  (to  4  hundredweight) £5  10s. 

2^  pairs  table  scales 9s.  6d.,  12s.  6d. 

1  set  of  measures per  set__    5s. 

2  wrought  iron  stock  pots  with  taps 28s.,  36s. 

2  oval  iron  boilers each 8s. 

1  oval  tin  boiler ' 3s.  6d. 

1  fish   kettle 6s. 

3  1-gallon  tin  cans each 2s. 

24  baking  tins do Is.  6d. 

4  skips  or  wash-ups do 3s.  6d. 

3  buckets do 2s.  3d. 

2  enamel  colanders do 2s.  6d. 

1  meat  saw  and  cleaver do 3s. 


AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  33 

Approximate  cost 
Description.  (England,  1918). 

2  sets  of  carvers  and  steel 16s. 

1  set  of  French  cook's  knives per  set 10s.  6d. 

6  vegetable   knives each 6d. 

1  flour  scoop 2s. 

1  conical  gravy  strainer 2s. 

12  tinned  iron  and  wooden  spoons each —  6d. 

12  stone  jars  (7-pound  jam  jars) do 6d. 

6  enameled  bins do 6s.  6d. 

8  mixing  basins do 3s. 

6  basins do Is.  3d. 

6  pie  dishes do Is.  9d. 

6  large  meat  dishes do 9s. 

This  equipment  was  adequate  for  meals  for  1,000  children,  but 
inadequate  for  a  communal  kitchen  designed  to  cater  to  the  public. 
The  following  apparatus  was  therefore  added: 

Description.  Cost 

1  Portway  fuel  roasting  oven  with  pyrometer £32  18s.  4d. 

1  Wright's  pudding  steamer £31    2s.  6d. 

1  Welbank  boilerette —    £1  10s. 

250  tinned  iron  pudding  basins per  dozen__  3s.  6d.  to  5s.  6<!L 

6  dozen  basins  or  moulds do 2s. 

200  patty  tins,  4i  and  5  inches  in  diameter do Is.  3d.  to  Is.  6d. 

For  this  extra  equipment,  the  borough  council  made  a  loan  of  £100, 
to  be  repaid  from  the  income  of  the  kitchen. 

Kitchen  staffs  wages,  and  duties. — 1.  Female  superintendent  cook. 
Wages,  £2  weekly  and  food.  A  woman  with  wide  and  long  experi- 
ence in  catering,  responsible  for  the  cooking  and  with  complete  con- 
trol of  the  staff.  She  carves  and  serves  the  roast  and  boiled  joints 
of  meat. 

2.  Assistant  cook,  £1  weekly  and  food.  Assists  cook  with  pud- 
dings, pastries,  etc.,  also  with  carving. 

3.  Male  assistant,  14s.  6d.  weekly  and  food.  Assists  cook  with 
minor  kitchen  duties,  weighing  of  meat,  boiler  work,  cleaning  of 
coppers  and  ovens,  etc. 

4.  Three  women,  each  15s.  weekly  and  food.  One  prepares  vege- 
tables and  washes  cooking  vessels.  Another  packs  and  sends  meals 
to  centers  for  necessitous  children  and  attends  to  general  duties.  The 
third  waits  upon  the  cooks  and  serves  at  the  counter. 

5.  Server  (part  time),  10s.  weekly  and  dinner.    Is  at  the  kitchen 

3  to  4  hours  daily.     Assists  in  serving  out  portions. 

In  addition,  a  female  junior  clerk  from  the  education  office  acts 
as  a  cashier  and  sells  tickets.  No  extra  payment  is  made  for  this 
work,  but  an  apportionment  is  shown  in  the  financial  returns. 

The  supervision  of  the  staff  and  work  is  entrusted  to  the  meals 
superintendent  of  the  education  committee,  who  buys  all  the  food. 
105584'— 19 6 


34  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

The  hours  of  the  staff  are :  Women,  8  a.  m.  to  5  p.  m.  daily ;  man, 
6.30  a.  m.  to  5  p.  m.  daily.  The  kitchen  is  open  to  the  public  daily, 
Sunday  excepted,  from  11.30  a.  m.  to  2  p.  m. 

Suitable  printed  notices  of  entrance  and  exit,  instructions  to  the 
public  that  they  must  provide  their  own  basins,  plates,  etc.,  are 
posted  in  conspicuous  places.  Copies  of  the  day's  bill  of  fare  are  ex- 
hibited outside  the  building  and  near  the  cash  desk.  On  entering, 
the  customer  buys  at  the  cash  desk  tickets  to  the  value  of  the  food 
desired.  A  separate  ticket  is  given  for  each  dish  asked  for,  to  aid 
in  the  record.  The  customer  receives  food  at  the  counter  in  exchange 
for  the  vouchers,  and  leaves  by  a  separate  exit. 

The  kitchen  buys  the  tickets,  priced  and  printed,  in  rolls,  6d.  for 
500,  lOid.  per  1,000.  Each  ticket  is  numbered.  This  numbered 
ticket  system  provides  an  easy  method  of  checking  the  cashier's  ticket 
account  and  cash.  A  typed  form  is  filled  in  by  the  cashier  each  day, 
and  has  spaces  and  entries  for  each  kind  of  ticket.  The  number  of 
tickets  used  and  the  ticket  numbers  are  also  recorded,  and  each  return 
supplies  daily  an  accurate  record  of  the  number  of  portions  sold,  with 
the  total  amount  of  cash  taken. 

Spartan  economy  is  employed.  Everything  is  weighed.  A  small 
stock  board  is  kept  constantly  in  use.  The  cost  of  each  dish  is  very 
carefully  calculated,  and  an  allowance  in  the  selling  price  is  added 
of  33^  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  for  capital,  working,  and  other 
charges.  A  daily  cash  accoimt  is  prepared.  The  expenditures  are 
for  wages,  administration,  rent  and  rates,  insurance,  fuel,  cleaning, 
depreciation  of  plant  and  utensils,  and  actual  cost  of  the  food  used. 

This  kitchen  can  provide  a  good  meal  for  from  6d.  to  8d.  The  cost 
of  the  meal  is  the  actual  cost  of  the  kitchen,  4d.  each  for  dinners,  and 
2d.  for  breakfast.  It  serves  on  the  average  675  meals  a  day  to  all 
classes.  At  first  the  poor  were  the  main  purchasers,  but  the  class  of 
customers  has  steadily  improved.  An  account  is  kept  with  the  Read- 
ing education  committee  by  which  the  kitchen  feeds  necessitous  school 
children.* 

The  superintendent  of  another  successful  communal  kitchen  gives 
the  following  advice  as  to  installation  and  equipment  of  a  kitchen :  * 

The  first  move  should  be  to  get  together  a  small  committee  of  practical  and 
willing  workers.  Suitable  premises  come  next,  centrally  located  in  the  quarter 
to  be  catered  for  and  spacious  enough  for  all  culinary  requirements.  They 
should  have  the  following  minimum  accommodations:  (1)  A  lofty,  well-lighted 
and  well-ventilated  room  for  cooking  and  selling;  (2)  a  large  storeroom,  dry 
and  well  ventilated;  (3)  a  spacious  larder;  (4)  one  or  two  dressing  rooms  for 
the  staff.  A  good  cellar  would  be  a  great  addition,  for  the  storage  of  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables. 

»  Municipal  Journal,  Jan.  11,  1918,  pp.  36-41. 

a  Local  Government  Cronicle,  No.  2676,  Mar.  23,  1918,  pp.  216,  217. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SAI.E   OF   COOKED  FOODS.  35 

Cooking  room,  storeroom,  and  larder  should  be  fully  equipped  before  work 
is  started. 

If  gas  is  to  be  used  for  cooking,  ventilation  and  also  provision  for  the  escape 
of  steam  must  be  well  looked  after.  The  use  of  the  newest  types  of  boilers 
and  steamers  makes  this  absolutely  necessary.  Economies  might  be  effected 
by  borrowing  or  hiring  spare  pots  and  pans  from  private-house  proprietors. 
Cast-iron  utensils,  if  carefully  looked  after,  keep  better  in  use  than  Idleness. 
Any  aluminum  ware  that  is  wanted  should  be  bought  outright.  Enamel  cooking 
pots  should  not  be  used  in  communal  kitchens.  The  committee  will  have  to 
decide  the  number,  type,  and  size  of  the  larger  utensils,  taking  into  account 
the  number  of  customers  expected.  For  the  purchase  of  such  articles  it  will 
be  most  economical  In  the  long  run  to  resort  to  the  best  and  nearest  firms. 
The  latest  types  of  boilers  and  steamers  save  time  and  labor  every  minute 
they  are  in  use  and  pay  for  themselves  in  this  way  in  a  short  time,  while 
the  older  kinds  are  a  perpetual  source  of  worry.  The  stafC  should  include  these 
persons : 

Superintendent;  a  reliable  person  with  experience  in  cooking — a  woman  of 
good  position  who  will  have  the  entire  management  in  her  hands,  subject  to 
the  control  of  the  committee. 

An  assistant  superintendent,  cook,  and  two  kitchen  maids,  chosen  with  the 
help  and  approval  of  the  superintendent. 

Volunteer  helpers  sell  the  food  and  help  in  rush  hours;  those  accustomed 
to  the  people,  who  live  among  them,  and  know  their  tastes  and  the  value  of 
food.  One  volunteer  is  responsible  for  the  cash  desk.  She  and  her  assistants 
give  out  tickets  of  different  values  for  cash  payments.  The  day's  menu,  with 
the  price  per  portion,  is  posted  on  the  entrance  gate,  with  a  duplicate  on  the 
cash  desk.  The  food-sales  women  take  over  the  tickets  presented  to  them  by 
the  customers  and  place  them  on  an  upright  file,  which  is  beside  each  dish, 
with  the  name  of  the  contents  of  the  dish  on  a  card.  Before  the  seller  leaves, 
she  counts  the  number  of  portions  she  has  sold  and  leaves  it  written  on  the 
file.  The  superintendent  verifies  the  file  records  and  posts  them  in  the  daybook. 
The  food  prepared  for  sale  has  already  been  entered.  What  remains  unsold  is 
counted.  The  cash  desk  furnishes  her  with  the  money  taken  in.  She  compares 
that  with  the  food  sold,  and  can  see  at  once  if  there  is  a  discrepancy. 

Two  volunteer  helpers  come  to  the  storeroom  daily.  One  issues  all  stores 
asked  for  by  the  superintendent  and  keeps  the  record  In  a  daybook.  The 
second  sees  to  renewing  supplies,  assists  the  other,  etc.  An  accurately  kept 
storeroom  daybook  is  a  necessity. 

One  of  the  cooks  assists  the  superintendent  by  taking  charge  of  the  petty- 
cash  book.  She  records  all  daily  supplies  which  come  directly  into  the  kitchen — 
fresh  meat,  milk,  bread,  etc. — and  takes  all  correspondence  off  the  hands  of 
the  superintendent. 

By  the  aid  of  the  storeroom  book,  the  petty-cash  book,  the  record  of  the 
daily  takings  in  cash,  a  weekly  record  of  gas  expenditure,  liabilities  for  rent, 
rates,  etc.,  a  correct  weekly  account  is  furnished  to  the  kitchen  committee. 

The  electric  tram  has  been  used  in  England  not  only  to  deliver 
meals,  but  for  cooking  in  transit.  Such  a  car  was  fitted  up  in  Aprils 
1918,  by  the  Halifax  corporation  tramways  committee,  whose  chair- 
man is  Alderman  Spencer,  the  director  of  national  kitchens.  A 
single-deck  tramcar  was  fitted  with  ovens  and  cookers  and  served 
with  electricity  from  overhead  wires.  At  one  end  of  the  car  is  a 
cash  box  where  orders  are  taken  and  tickets  issued.    The  food  is 


36 


AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 


served  from  the  sides  of  the  car.  It  is  prepared  at  the  central 
kitchen  and  cooked  in  the  car. 

The  Halifax  tramcar  kitchen,  which  is  capable  of  supplying  about 
800  portions,  is  equipped  with  an  electric  cooking  plant;  2  baking 
or  roasting  ovens,  82  inches  high  by  22  inches  wide  by  21  inches  deep, 
fitted  with  6  racks  spaced  6  inches  apart;  size  of  each  rack  18 J  by 
19J  inches.  Sheet  metal  on  angle-iron  framing  is  used.  The  load- 
ing is  16  kilowatts,  divided  into  4  sections,  controlled  by  4  quick- 
break  rotary  switches  fitted  on  the  oven  framing.  These  are  24 
heating  elements,  12  on  each  side,  interchangeable  and  easily  fitted. 
For  steaming,  there  are  4  steam  cooking  ovens,  each  16  by  16  by  24 
inches,  with  4  shelves.  There  is  a  25-gallon  boiling  pan.  The  ovens 
will  cook  720  portions  of  pie  in  2  batches,  600  fish  cakes  in  1  batch, 
860  milk  puddings,  or  108  pounds  of  bread.  The  4  steam  cooking 
ovens  cook  1,152  dumplings  in  2  batches,  160  pounds  of  potatoes 
(320  portions) ,  etc.  The  whole  cooking  space  is  10  by  5  feet  9  inches 
by  5  feet  6  inches  in  height. 

The  firm  of  manufacturing  electrical  engineers  which  made  the 
appliances  for  the  Halifax  tramcar  kitchen  has  placed  on  the  market 
a  complete  equipment  for  an  electrically-run  kitchen.  Their  adver- 
tisements make  the  claim  that  electricity  gives  10  per  cent  more 
weight  cooked  meat  from  the  same  weight  of  raw  meat  than  any 
other  method  of  cooking;  it  calls  for  no  flues;  there  is  no  loss  of 
heat ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  the  most  hygienic  method.  The  standard- 
ized equipment  for  1,000  persons  manufactured  by  this  firm  is  made 
of  the  following  items : 


Description. 


Ox)eratIon. 


Cooking  output  (approximately). 


8  electric  ovens,  each  7i  cubic 
feet  capacity. 


<  electric  steamers,  each  5i 
cubic  feet  capacity. 


S  30-gaIlon  boilers,  with  lifting 

grids. 
23(>-gallon  soup  boilers , 

1 10-gallon  water  boiling  urn... 


Roasting  and  baking. 


Suet  pudding,  potatoes,  and 
other  vegetables,  etc. 


For  vegetables. 
For  soups 


For  tea  making  and  sundry 
purposes. 


1  hot  cupboard  with  hot  top. 

1  boiler  ^te,  with  8  burners 
and 


8  solid-top  hot  plates . 


1  boiler  (burning  coal,  coke, 
or  refuse,  with  TC^gallon 
storage  tank). 


cooked  food  warm. 

For  frying,  grilling,  toasting, 
making  sauces,  gravies,  and 
other  sundry  work. 

For  keeping  trays  of  food, 
taken  from  ovens  and  steam- 
ers hot  whilst  being  served. 

For  supplying  hot  water  to 
feed  the  electrical  steamers, 
boilers,  urns,  etc.,  and  for 
washing  purposes. 


100  pounds  of  meat  (Tper  3  hours);  54 
pounds  of  bread  (each  oven,  per  hour); 
360  portions  of  meat  pies;  180  portions 
milk  puddings  (per  hour);  300  fish  cakes 
(per  hour). 

Each  steamer,  80  pounds  potatoes  (per 
J  hour);  245  dumplings  (per  f  hour); 
250  portions  suet  roll  (per  |  hour);  125 
meat  puddings  (per  f  hour). 

160  pounds  of  potatoes  or  similar  vegeta- 
bles (each  boiler). 

About  60  gallons  of  soup  equals  640  |  pint 
portions. 

Where  supplied  with  hot  water  at  about 
130  F.  the  capacity  Is  about  320°  i  pint 
portions  per  hour. 

600  plates  in  one  batch,  or  250  plates,  and 
40  to  50  dinners  in  dishes  with  suitable 
piling  up  covers. 

Qriller  will  do  6  rounds  of  toast,  5  min- 
utes; 12  small  chops  or  steaks  (per  i 
hour);  a  number  of  utensils  can  be  kept 
simmering  or  boiling  on  the  3  burners. 

Simply  for  use  adjoining  the  serving 
counter;  are  very  strong  and  will  stand 
any  weight. 

Output.  25  gallons  boiling  water  per  hour, 
or  will  raise  60  gallons  of  water  to  130* 
F.  In  1  hour. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  37 

A  great  deal  of  careful  thought  was  given  to  the  equipment  of  the 
kitchen  at  Hammersmith,  a  large  one,  supplying  about  6,000  cus- 
tomers a  week,  which  probably  represents  12,000  to  15,000  consumers. 

Two  factors  were  deemed  of  great  importance:  First,  a  bill  of  fare  which 
could  be  worked  to  with  the  least  variety  of  appliances,  thus  limiting  labor  and 
cost  while  Increasing  possible  output ;  second,  the  preparation  and  sale  of  foods 
that  could  be  warmed  up  most  successfully  without  spoiling  »  ♦  *.  The 
ovens  are  gas  heated  and  brick  lined;  a  type  which  Is  best  for  continuous, 
uniform  cooking  ♦  *  *.  The  kitchen  being  large,  it  was  possible  to  intro- 
duce a  steam-generating  boiler  for  those  cooking  processes  which  can  be  done 
by  steam,  consequently  the  meat  boilers  are  steam-jacketed,  the  pudding 
steamers  are  heated  by  a  supply  from  the  boiler,  while  the  sink  water  is  also 
heated  by  steam.  Baking,  as  Indicated,  is  done  by  gas-heated  ovens  which  are 
known  as  pastry  cooks'  ovens.  The  vegetable  boilers  are  gas  heated,  not  steam, 
and  this  was  due  to  the  less  first  cost  of  the  gas  boiler.* 

The  report  just  quoted  also  describes  the  equipment  of  the  West- 
minster national  kitchen,  which  is  a  gas  kitchen.  It  offers  a  wide 
choice  of  cooked  foods  and  has  appliances  similar  to  those  found  in  a 
canteen  or  middle-class  restaurant. 

A  useful  form  of  steam  cooker  is  made  of  tinned  sheet  steel,  really  a  simple 
sheet-met^l  cupboard,  about  20  by  20  by  24  Inches  or  larger,  with  perforated 
shelves.  The  special  detail  is  the  bottom,  which  Is  formed  of  an  open  water 
pan  holding  sufficient  water  for  one  steaming.  Under  this  bottom  a  gas  ring 
is  set  to  boil  the  water.  The  door  must  fit  well.  An  aperture  at  top,  usually 
one-half  inch  in  diameter,  lets  the  steam  escape  and  prevents  undue  pressure. 
The  steam  escapes  into  the  kitchen  or  may  be  led  away  through  a  pipe. 
Nothing  could  be  simpler  or  less  expensive  to  make,  and  it  is  quite  safe,  because 
steam  under  pressure  Is  never  required  for  this  work. 

Another  necessary  appliance  is  the  hot  closet,  which  may  be  made  of  black 
sheet-iron  plates  riveted  ^n  angle-iron  framing  or  similarly  stiffened.  Hot 
closets  are  obtainable  from  the  regular  manufacturers,  but  these  are  usually 
of  cast  plates,  and  the  top  is  sometimes  heated  independently  to  serve  as  a  hot 
table  and  to  provide  accommodation  for  a  bain-marie  pan  and  carving  dishes. 
Where,  however,  low  cost  is  of  importance  the  simple  black  sheet-Iron  cupboard 
is  found  sufficient.  A  useful  size  would  be  6  feet  wide,  2  feet  6  Inches  high, 
2  feet  front  to  back.  If  the  top  is  required  to  be  stiff  enough  to  serve  as  a 
warm  counter  or  table  simple  means  of  staying  can  be  devised.  The  heating 
of  a  hot  closet  can  be  readily  done  by  a  few  No.  2  luminous  gas  burners.  Ten 
or  twelve  to  a  6-foot  closet  suffice,  for  a  fairly  low  temperature  is  all  that  is 
required. 

Another  form  of  appliance,  sometimes  partly  sunk  Into  the  counter,  sometimes 
independent,  is  the  soup  and  vegetable  warming  tins.  These  need  no  covers  If 
a  quick  service  is  expected.  The  vessels  are  of  tin,  about  20  by  14  inches  by 
12  inches  high,  quite  plain  inside,  but  arranged  with  a  suitable  middle  rim  or 
projection  outside,  so  that  the  lower  half,  or  thereabouts,  drops  and  rests  in  a 
pan  of  hot  water. 

When  we  turn  to  a  study  of  the  menus  of  the  British  kitchens,  it 
becomes  clear  that  their  problems  of  organization  and  equipment  are 

—mm~— . . . . , . . r— ■^.■i^ 

A  The  Ironmonger,  Mar.  9,  1918 ;  quoted  in  Commerce  Reports,  Apr.  16,  1918. 


38         AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

vastly  different  from  those  of  the  kitchens  on  the  continent,  most  of 
which  keep  to  a  menu  of  broth,  stew,  or  soup,  which  simplifies  the 
whole  process  of  preparing,  cooking,  transporting,  serving,  and  ap- 
portioning the  food.  Little  other  equipment  is  needed  at  such  cen- 
tral kitchens  than  mincing  or  chopping  machines  and  boilers  propor- 
tioned in  number  and  size  to  the  public  for  whom  provision  is  made ; 
and  these  proportions  have  long  since  been  carefully  worked  out  and 
standardized  by  the  Volkskiichen.  For  transportation,  large  cans  or 
vessels  are  easily  obtainable,  and  a  dipper  is  about  all  that  is  neces- 
sary at  the  distributing  center.  Where  ordinary  care  is  used  the  food 
will  require  no  reheating,  and  there  is  no  problem  of  loss  of  weight 
or  nutriment.  The  same  conditions  hold  true  of  the  Italian  kitchens. 
Mr.  J.  E.  Ham,  American  consul  at  Turin,  in  a  report  to  the  State 
Department  on  the  first  communal  kitchen  in  Kome,  opened  Decem- 
ber, 1917,  gives  the  following  facts  with  reference  to  the  meals  and 
equipment:  "There  are  4  kettles,  with  a  capacity  of  250  liters  (75 
gallons).  The  meals  consist  of  a  soup  of  vegetables,  30  centimes 
($0.06),  and  120  grams  (4  ounces)  of  boneless  meat,  with  vegetables, 
90  centimes  ($0.18)." 

The  British  ministry  of  food,  in  the  installation  of  the  tiational 
kitchens  set  for  itself  the  problem  of  interfering  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  food  habits  of  the  population,  and  of  making  the  transition 
from  home  cooking  to  the  buying  of  food  ready  cooked  as  easy  as 
possible.  While  it  had  under  advisement  the  education  of  its  public 
in  the  use  of  foods  of  greater  nutritive  value  and  in  many  cases  more 
available  than  the  more  familiar  foods,  it  did  not  make  the  mistake 
of  Holland  in  selling  at  the  kitchens  the  foods  already  unpopular 
through  tradition  or  special  circumstance.  Instead,  the  kitchens 
started  by  serving  foods  that  were  appetizing,  popular,  familiar,  and 
attractive. 

The  menus  had  to  be  prepared  with  a  view  in  the  beginning  to  the 
preparation  and  sale  of  only  those  foods  which  could  be  warmed  suc- 
cessfully without  spoiling.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  original 
plans  for  the  kitchens  called  only  for  the  sale  of  foods  to  be  taken 
away.  The  modification  of  this  plan  by  opening  restaurants  in  con- 
nection with  the  kitchens  has  changed  the  planning  of  the  menus, 
also  the  hours  during  which  the  kitchens  are  open.  The  early 
kitchens  were  in  most  cases  open  from  11  a.  m.  to  about  2  p.  m.,  but 
at  the  present  time  there  is  great  variation  in  this  matter. 

In  the  Hammersmith  kitchen  a  weekly  bill  of  fare  is  used.  A 
typical  menu  is :  Mutton  broth.  Id. ;  mutton  pie,  3d. ;  cheese  cutlet, 
2d.;  potatoes.  Id.;  sirup  roll.  Id.  Except  for  occasional  rissoles,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  meat  is  always  in  pie  form,  an  arrangement 
which  simplifies  the  choice  of  appliances,  and  facilitates  cooking, 
service,  and  the  convenience  of  the  public,  which  has  to  carry  away 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  89 

and  warm  up  the  food.  The  meat  pies  are  baked  in  small  tins,  so 
that  one  whole  pie  goes  to  each  purchaser. 

A  typical  menu  of  such  kitchens  as  those  of  Westminster,  Ealing, 
and  Reading,  which  provide  a  wider  variety,  is  as  follows:  Scotch 
broth,  IJd.;  fish  roll,  2d.;  vegetable  pie,  2d.;  mince,  4d.;  roast  meat, 
5d. ;  potatoes,  Id. ;  parsnips,  Id. ;  ginger  pudding,  2d. ;  plain  pudding 
and  sauce,  2d. ;  baked  rice  pudding,  l^d. 

The  Halifax  tramcar  kitchen  served  the  following  menu  on  its 
first  day : 

f  pint  soup . Id. 

Dumpling . Id. 

Vegetable  pie 4d. 

Potatoes Id. 

Rice  pudding lid. 

Ginger  pudding 2d. 

A  kitchen  at  Buckingham  Palace  Road,  London,  offered  in  Janu- 
uary,  1918,  the  following  menu : 

Vegetable   soup Id. 

Beef  stew 3d. 

Meat  pies ^ 2d. 

Roast  joint '4d.  and  6d. 

Steamed  potatoes Id. 

Cabbage Id. 

Treacle  pudding lid. 

Rice  pudding Id. 

Extra  portions  of  gravy ^ id. 

The  central  cooperative  kitchen  at  Holloway,  conducted  by  the 
Northern  Polytechnic  and  serving  2,500  patrons  daily,  offered  this 
menu  in  February:  Soup,  beef  stew,  meat  pies,  roast  joint,  tripe  and 
onions,  baked  herrings,  potatoes,  cabbage,  treacle,  or  rice  pudding. 

The  Chelsea  national  kitchen  offers  an  appetizing  and  varied  bill 
of  fare.  There  is  always  a  whole  fish  sold  at  a  higher  cost  than 
made-up  fish.  A  midday  bill  of  fare  comprised  barley  soup,  IJd.; 
baked  haddock  6d. ;  and  kedgeree,  3d.;  the  vegetables  were  potatoes 
and  braised  onions.  There  were  three  kinds  of  sweets  and  savory 
rice  at  3d.     Cold  meats  are  on  sale  in  the  evening. 

These  menus  give  some  idea  of  the  kind  of  food  sold,  its  variety, 
and  the  range  of  prices.  They  are  chosen  from  menus  given  at  per- 
haps the  darkest  period  through  which  England  has  passed  with 
respect  to  her  food  supply,  and  reflect  the  care  with  which  the 
authorities  dealt  with  the  food  habits  of  the  nation!     • 

The  causes  of  success  and  failure  in  the  national  experiment  in 
communal  kitchens  made  by  Great  Britain  are  intimately  connected 
with  the  question  as  to  their  future.  The  one  chief  criticism,  that 
they  are  a  step  away  from  family  life  and  in  the  direction  of  com- 
munism, was  met  at  the  time  of  their  inception  by  the  answer  of 


40  AGENCIES  J'OR  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

their  sheer,  dire  necessity.  That  the  problem  of  actual  food  scarcity, 
for  which  they  were  offered  as  a  partial  solution,  will  continue  into 
the  after-the-war  period  has  been  generally  accepted  as  a  fact. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  kitchens  have  successfully  met  the 
temptation  to  profiteering  which  arises  in  times  of  crisis.  An  edito- 
rial writer  in  the  Manchester  Guardian,  March  12,  1918,  said : 

London  is  beginning  to  realize  how  enormous  is  tlie  profit  of  the  caterer  in  all 
but  the  most  humble  restaurants.  The  broad  fact  is  that  most  restaurants  have 
steadily  cut  down  their  portions  of  unrationed  as  well  as  of  rationed  food,  and 
have  increased  their  prices  to  a  point  far  beyond  that  of  the  commodities. 

That  commercial  enterprises  could  not  be  trusted  to  step  in  to  meet 
the  need  is  shown  by  the  writer  in  the  Quarterly  Eeview  for  January, 
1918,  when  he  makes  the  nice  distinction  between  a  "  conmier- 
cially  profitable  demand  "  and  a  "  national  advantage,"  and  says : 

Until  the  standard  of  life  in  the  more  populous  centers  has  been  raised  to  a 
point  at  which  the  demand  for  ready-cooked  meals  of  satisfactory  quality  be- 
comes effective,  the  private  cookshop  is  likely  to  concentrate  on  a  few  popular 
but  frequently  wasteful  and  comparatively  expensive  foods. 

A  contributing  cause  of  the  failure  of  some  of  the  earlier  kitchens 
was  the  use  of  too  much  volunteer  and  untrained  help.  Workers  inex- 
perienced in  such  catering  did  not  understand  either  the  proper  com- 
bination of  foods  to  secure  an  adequate  and  attractive  diet  or  how 
to  purchase  and  serve  to  avoid  waste  of  money  and  materials. 

It  was  evident  that  this  danger  was  recognized,  for  the  members  of 
the  ministry  of  food  repeatedly  deprecated  the  use  of  volunteer  help- 
ers in  their  public  utterances,  and  expressly  stipulated  that  the 
kitchens  must  "  pay  their  way."  It  is  also  often  observed  by  those 
interested  that  the  presence  of  volunteer  workers  "  creates  an  atmos- 
phere of  condescension  and  patronage."  The  founders  of  the  Italian, 
Austrian,  and  German  kitchens  advocated  their  use,  as  lessening  the 
gap  between  the  social  classes.  But  this  way  of  lessening  class-con- 
flict does  not  seem  to  appeal  to  the  Britisher.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  kitchens  which  hope  to  reach  the  middle  class. 

The  following  reasons  were  given  for  the  non-success  of  some  of  the 
earlier  English  kitchens :  * 

(1)  The  expensive  system  adopted  of  a  central  kitchen  with  distributing 
depots  Instead  of  having  self-contained  kitchens. 

(2)  No  proper  system  of  deciding  the  sale  prices  of  the  articles  sold. 

(3)  The  fact  that  voluntary  helpers  sell  food  at  depots  without  the  assistance 
of  a  paid  supervisor. 

(4)  That  the  tickets  used  are  not  properly  checked  with  the  number  of 
portions  sold. 

(5)  That  the  portions  returned  and  portions  sold  do  not  agree  with  the 
total  number  of  portions  sent  out. 

»  Municipal  Journal,  June  28,  1918,  p.  687. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  41 

(6)  The  monotony  in  menus — too  much  fried  food,  using  a  quantity  of  fat 
for  cooking  and  frying  purposes,  and  an  insufficient  quantity  of  vegetables, 
sauces,  and  gravies. 

(7)  Selling  of  cold  food. 

(8)  That  there  has  been  no  system  of  valuing  stock  each  week. 

Mr.  Cox  has  strongly  recommended  that  the  present  system  of 
control  kitchens  be  discontinued,  and  that  in  place  of  it  a  self-con- 
tained kitchen  with  a  restaurant  should  be  established ;  that  a  store- 
keeper and  cashier  should  be  appointed,  whose  duty  it  would  be  to 
issue  stores  daily  to  the  cook  in  charge,  with  a  statement  of  their 
value.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  see  that  the  profit  on  the  food 
gold  be  about  33J  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  raw  material,  and  that 
in  no  case  should  it  be  less  than  25  per  cent. 

The  writer  of  an  open  letter  written  to  the  Manchester  Guardian 
attributes  some  of  the  hindrances  to  the  success  of  the  national  kitch- 
ens to  the  ministry ;  others  are  deeply  ingrained  in  the  habits  of  the 
people;  others  are  matters  of  organization,  administration,  and  ex- 
perience. Although  this  writer  looks  upon  the  kitchens  as  primarily 
a  war  measure  to  provide  for  a  reliable  distribution  of  cheap  and 
wholesome  meals,  he  adds :  ^ 

There  may  very  likely  be  a  permanent  place  In  our  social  system  for  the 
national  or  municipal  kitchen.  It  may  revolutionize  the  methods  of  providing 
family,  dinners,  and  ultimately  domestic  cookery  may  have  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  lost  arts,  but  with  a  compensating  gain  to  woman  from  freedom 
from  toil  and  worry  and  monotony  in  the  service  of  the  home. 

A  much  copied  exchange  used  in  labor  papers  and  entitled  "  Na- 
tional Kitchens  Popular  in  England,"  says ;  * 

The  question  naturally  arises:  Wfll  these  institutions,  which  are  proving  of 
such  immense  economic  value  at  the  present  time,  survive  the  war?  If  we 
admit  that  the  unparalleled  position  which  woman  at  the  present  time  occupies 
in  the  industrial  world  may  have  effects  beyond  the  wildest  dreams  of  specu- 
lation, it  is  not  difficult  to  make  out  a  case  for.  the  survival  of  the  national 
kitchen. 

It  is  significanf  in  this  connection  that  the  platform  of  the 
Woman's  Party  in  England  includes  the  plank : 

Food  rations,  accompanied  by  the  development  of  communal  kitchens,  so  as 
to  economize  domestic  labor,  reduce  food  waste,  and  guarantee  to  the  people 
the  best  possible  food  at  the  lowest  possible  prices,  cooked  in  the  most  skillful 
way,  so  that  its  full  nutritive  value  may  be  secured. 

1  Reprinted  in  Local  Government  Chronicle,  May  25,  1918,  pw  841. 

2  The  Square  Deal,  Devoted  to  the  interests  of  organised  labor.  VoL  IV,  No.  18,  Aug. 
16,  1918. 

Since  the  above  was  written  the  following  note  has  appeared  in  the  Canadian  Food 
Bulletin  (No.  21,  Ottawa,  December,  1918)  :  "A  scheme  for  a  national  kitchen  at  Bath, 
England,  has  been  rejected  by  the  city  council.  It  was  stated  that  Ldverpool  has  closed 
five  such  kitchens  after  losing  £1,000  on  each." 


42  AQBNCIBS  FOB  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

The  immediate  future  of  the  British  national  kitchens  seems  to 
lie  in  the  development  of  canteen  and  restaurant  facilities.  The  na- 
tional restaurant  in  New  Bridge  Street,  London,  to  be  run  as  both 
kitchen  and  restaurant,  was  opened  as  a  model.  The  cooking  is  done 
by  steam,  gas,  and  electricity,  the  roasting  by  electricity,  and  the  boil- 
ing by  gas.  It  was  opened  on  June  26,  1918,  and  its  immediate  suc- 
cess showed  the  need  for  these  restaurants  in  populous  neighbor- 
hoods. Shops,  offices,  and  homes  in  the  vicinity  may  send  and  collect 
their  own  meals  or  have  them  delivered  at  an  extra  charge  of  a  penny. 
Others  have  since  been  opened  in  London,  Leeds,  Glasgow,  Man- 
chester, Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Brighton,  Cardiff,  Birmingham,  and 
Bristol. 

The  representative  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  in 
Great  Britain  writes  of  the  New  Bridge  Street  restaurant  as  follows  :^ 

The  moderate  price  restaurant  keepers  ♦  *  ♦  have  been  much  opposed 
to  this  undertaking  of  the  ministry  of  food,  claiming  that  it  could  not  succeed 
without  a  Government  subsidy,  owing  to  the  low  prices  charged  and  the  large 
portions  served.  The  figures  given  in  the  report  for  four  weeks  show,  accord- 
ing to  the  director,  a  profit  of  70  per  cent  per  annum,  and,  as  has  been  said, 
"  suggest  that  it  is  really  possible  to  supply  nourishing  food  in  satisfying  quan- 
tities at  low  prices  and  yet  obtain  a  very  substantial  profit."  ♦  ♦  *  At 
none  of  the  other  eating  places  are  such  large  portions  served  as  at  the  Na- 
tional restaurant,  and  at  most  of  them  the  prices  are  slightly  higher.  If  there 
is  any  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  food  served  it  is  all  in  favor  of  the 
Government  restaurant. 

One  is  much  impressed  at  this  restaurant  by  the  class  of  people  who  use  the 
place.  They  are  all  rather  prosperous-looking  middle-class  people,  and  I  fear 
the  people  for  whom  the  place  was  supposedly  designed  do  not  get  much  benefit 
from  it    •    ♦    *    • 

The  menu  for  the  day,  with  prices,  hangs  outside  the  door.  About  a  dozen 
people  are  admitted  at  a  time,  and  they,  having  decided  upon  their  order,  ask 
the  cashier  just  inside  for  checks  for  the  total  amount  they  are  to  spend 
♦  *  *.  Then  one  proceeds  to  the  long  serving  counter  and  gets  whatever 
one  desires  on  a  tray,  somewjiat  as  in  our  cafeterias,  except  that  each  dish  is 
served  by  an  attendant  who  takes  the  necessary  check  in  return.  The  tables 
are  set  [by  waitresses,  who  also  clear  them]  with  all  the-  requisite  cutlery  and 
drinking  water  and  glasses.  The  china  and  cutlery  are  most  satisfactory. 
The  service  is  rapid,  all  things  considered.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  man- 
ager might  learn  much  in  that  respect  from  a  study  of-  those  marvelous 
Chicago  cafeterias    •    ♦    *. 

I  lunched  on  soup  (2d.  [4  cents]),  rice  pudding  (3d.  [6  cents]),  bread  and 
butter — three  slices — (2d.  [4  cents]),  and  coffee  (2d.  [4  cents]);  total,  lid. 
[22  cents],  and  I  have  not  yet  ceased  being  astonished  at  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  everything  ♦  •  ♦.  There  was  almost  no  noise  and  no  loud  talk- 
ing. Everyone  was  apparently  enjoying  his  lunch  and  having  a  restful  break 
in  his  day's  work,  as  well.  That  is  more  than  we  can  say  for  ourselves  in 
Washington  at  lunch  time    ♦    ♦    ♦. 

1  Cost  of  Food  In  National  Restaurants  in  London,  ]>y  N.  C.  Adams,  Monthly  Labor  Re- 
rlew,  November,  1918,  pp.  121-122.  See  also  Municipal  Journal,  July  12,  1918,  p.  729, 
and  article  by  P.  B.  Kennedy  in  Commerce  Reports,  U.  S.  Department  of  State,  Aug.  8, 
1918,  pp.  520-522. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  43 

Prices  In  the  first-class  restaurants  and  the  moderate-priced  places  in  London  i 

are  practically  the  same  as  in  America,  but  I  have  never  seen  a  place  at  home  ) 

where  I  could  get  for  the  money  as  satisfactory  a  lunch  as  I  had  at  this  ; 

restaurant.  ^ 

At  about  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  first  national  restaurant 
the  ministry  of  food  announced  that  it  would  take  over  from  the      \ 
former  contractor  the  three   canteens  in  the   Southampton   dock-      \ 
yards  and  convert  them  into  national  kitchens,  reequipping  the  build-      i 
ing  with  steam  and  electrical  cooking  arrangements.    There  are  some 
10,000  employees  in  the  yards. 

As  one  reviews  the  history  of  the  British  national  kitchen  move- 
ment, it  becomes  evident  that  it  has  not  been  clear  sailing,  in  spite 
of  the  courage,  enthusiasm,  and  resourcefulness  of  the  responsible 
members  of  the  ministry  of  food.  The  lessons  to  be  learned  may  be 
summarized  from  the  pages  of  the  writer  in  the  monthly  review 
before  quoted :  | 

Public  kitchens,  to  be  successful,  must  be  opened  in  the  right      ' 
neighborhood. 

Kitchens  must  be  located  in  attractive  premises,  in  prominent  posi- 
tions. 

Kitchens  will  have  to  offer  such  value  for  the  money  as  to  compete 
effectively  with  the  privately  cooked  meal. 

Kitchens  will  have  to  study  the  tastes  and  prejudices  of  their  pa- 
trons, introducing  unfamiliar  dishes  gradually. 

Public  kitchens  will  have  to  make  the  most  of  their  advantage  as 
public  and  patriotic  institutions,  enjoying  the  support  of  the  food 
authorities.  They  will  need  the  advantage  of  centralized  buying  at 
wholesale  prices ;  they  will  need  help  in  the  shape  of  information,  in- 
struction, and  advice;  and  they  will  need  the  "good  will"  attached 
to  their  public  character. 


THE  AMERICAN  STTTJATION. 

The  history  of  the  cooperative  movement  in  America,  up  to  the 
great  war,  is  an  epitome  of  attempts  at  the  development  of  agencies 
which  undertook  to  relieve  the  housewife  of  some  of  the  burdens  of 
the  individual  kitchens.  American  individualism,  the  enormous  dis- 
tances covered  by  the  States,  the  variety  of  peoples,  customs,  tradi- 
tions, and  an  underlying  conservatism  which  was  a  part  of  the  social 
inheritance  from  Puritanism,  are  all  but  a  part  of  the  reason  for  the 
slow  growth  of  movements  which  would  bind  communities  closer 
together.  There  have  been  isolated  cases  of  sucessful  coopertive 
stores ;  there  are  successful  experiments  here  and  there  in  cooperative 
housekeeping;  there  are  to-day  small  community  kitchens  which 
have  a  degree  of  success.  Miss  Fee,  supervisor  of  the  kitchens  of  the 
Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor  of  New  York 
City,  told  the  writer  that  at  a  dietetics  conference  held  recently, 
when  the  subject  of  community  kitchens  was  introduced,  to  the  in- 
tense surprise  of  every  one  it  was  found  that  there  were  present  fif- 
teen women  interested  in  some  venture  of  the  sort,  none  of  whom 
knew  of  the  work  of  the  others.  It  may  be  that  grim  necessity  will 
act  as  a  reagent  on  the  chaos  of  the  present  and  create  a  unity  which 
will  be  essentially  American,  not  something  copied  from  the  British 
national  kitchens,  still  less  from  the  Teutonic  Volkskiichen  with 
their  "  soup  kitchen  "  tradition  to  alienate  the  self-respecting  working 
and  middle  class. 

All  that  a  preliminary  study  of  this  sort  can  hope  to  do  is  to  pre- 
sent such  material  as  is  available  on  agencies  which  have  to  do  with 
the  preparation  of  food  in  bulk  for  use  in  the  home.  There  are  two 
forms  of  commercial  ventures  which  have  successfully  entered  this 
field  of  which  we  shall  merely  speak  in  passing.  The  public  bakery 
has  to  a  very  large  extent  superseded  home  baking  in  the  larger  com- 
munities. In  Europe,  many  of  these  bakeries  are  cooperative;  but 
in  the  United  States  they  are  commercial  ventures,  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful from  the  dietetic  point  of  view.  The  exigencies  of  the  war 
caused  a  deterioration  in  the  output  of  many  of  the  bakeries  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  making  bread  in  quantities  with  the  modified  flour. 
Many  war  agencies  in  various  cities  have  ventured  into  the  field  pre- 
viously preempted  by  the  baker.    For  example,  all  of  the  bread  for 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SAL.E  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  45 

the  city  canteens  maintained  by  the  mayor's  committee  of  women  on 
national  defense  of  New  York  City  is  now  baked  in  the  city  kitchen. 

Another  cooked-food  agency  which  has  made  itself  a  part  of  city 
life  is  the  delicatessen  shop.  In  cities  where  apartment-house  life  is 
the  home  life  of  the  mass  of  the  middle  class,  where  there  arc  many 
women  who  work  but  who  prefer  to  eat  at  home,  the  delicatessen 
shop  in  its  better  form  has  been  a  boon.  It  is  true,  however,  that  it 
has  not  been  an  unmodified  blessing  from  the  standpoint  of  health  or 
financial  economy.  While  there  are  no  statistics  available,  there  has 
been  enough  investigation  of  the  delicatessen  trade  in  some  of  the 
large  American  cities  to  make  it  a  certainty  that  much  of  the  food 
used  in  certain  types  of  shops  is  of  low  grade,  bought  on  tlie  verge 
of  spoiling  and  salvaged  with  dressings  highly  seasoned  and  deco- 
rated. A  study  made  by  a  worker  for  the  board  of  health  in  one 
city  of  the  sources  of  supply  for  delicatessen  shops  uncovered  the 
fact  that  very  little  high-grade  material  was  used.  This  is  probably 
equally  true  of  other  cities.  The  food  is,  therefore,  relatively  ex- 
pensive. The  study  alluded  to  showed  that  the  delicatessen  shops 
are  prospering  under  war  conditions  because  of  the  demand  for 
women  in  labor.  That  there  are  large  night  sales  is  indicated  by  the 
difficulty  in  getting  delicatessen  shops  to  conform  to  any  closing 
program.  When  the  dealers  were  asked  to  close  early  in  order  to 
save  light,  heat,  and  food,  they  made  the  very  interesting  remon- 
strance that  their  best  patrons  were  those  employed  late  at  night. 
It  would  seem  that  any  city  community  kitchen  venture  should  take 
this  statement  into  account  in  planning  its  hours  for  serving  the 
public,  if  it  desires  to  reach  the  public  to  which  the  delicatessen 
shops  cater.  It  would  also  seem  that  there  could  never  be  a  better 
time  to  bring  the  delicatessen  shop  into  line  with  other  agencies  in 
the  conservation  of  food  and  the  preservation  of  the  national  health. 
It  can  be  made  a  more  important  institution  than  it  now  is  if  the 
suspicion  of  the  quality  of  its  product  can  be  removed  from  the 
reputable  dealers  by  adequate  investigation  and  supervision,  with  a 
consequent  standardization  of  products. 

No  account,  however  brief,  of  ventures  in  the  large  scale  prepara- 
tion of  wholesome  food  to  be  consumed  in  the  home  would  be  com- 
plete without  telling  the  story  of  the  New  England  kitchen,  an  experi- 
ment undertaken  in  the  early  nineties  "  to  determine  the  successful 
conditions  of  preparing  by  scientific  methods,  from  the  cheaper  food 
materials,  nutritious  and  palatable  dishes,  which  should  find  a  ready 
demand  at  paying  prices."  According  to  a  statement  made  by  Mrs. 
Ellen  H.  Richards  in  the  preface  to  the  story  of  this  kitchen  written 
by  its  founder,  Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel,  the  success  of  the  kitchen 
was  directly  due  to  Mrs.  Abel's  hard  work  as  well  as  to  her  unusual 
ability,  enthusiasm,  and  ready  tact.    In  other  words,  the  situation 


46  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

then  did  not  directly  call  for  the  kitchen,  but  the  kitchen  had  to  edu- 
cate its  public. 

The  New  England  kitchen  was  not  founded  primarily  to  pay  its 
way.  A  fund  had  been  provided ;  those  who  took  the  fund  were  left 
free  to  work  according  to  their  discretion.  That  it  was  on  its  feet 
financially  in  two  years  was  owing  to  its  proximity  to  a  school  to 
which  it  served  lunches  (see  p.  18). 

The  business  side  of  this  kitchen  venture  was  never  prominent. 
Mrs.  Abel  was  able  to  proceed  with  the  venture,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  gift,  without  fij^ving  a  thought  to  the  cost.  The  price  of 
the  food  sold  was  meant  to  cover  little  more  than  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. But  the  kitchen  taught  the  founder  many  things  about  the 
method  for  a  paying  kitchen.  As  to  organization,  she  advises  "a 
stock  company  with  a  board  of  directors,  scientific  and  medical  men, 
with  a  delivery  system  for  choice  foods,  food  for  invalids,  bread,  etc." 
One  of  the  great  obstacles  to  the  success  of  such  ventures  Mrs.  Abel 
believes  to  be  "  the  mixed  nationalities  and  varied  tastes  of  the  in- 
habitants of  our  cities."  This  kitchen  later  became  a  part  of  the 
plant  of  the  Women's  Industrial  and  Educational  Union  of  Boston, 
which  has  been  a  pioneer  in  much  scientific  work  connected  with 
the  problems  created  for  women  by  their  absorption  into  industrial 
life,  and  whose  recent  study  of  "  The  Food  of  Working  Women  in 
Boston  "  shows  conclusively  how  serious  a  problem  is  created  for  the 
Nation  by  the  underfeeding  of  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  future 
mothers  of  the  Nation  during  the  most  important  period  of  their  lives. 

Mrs.  Abel  has  kept  a  record  of  community  ventures  in  kitchens 
and  cooperative  housekeeping  over  a  long  period,  beginning  with  the 
eighties.  They  are  so  much  alike  in  their  leading  features  that  to 
tell  the  story  of  one  or  two  is  to  give  the  substance  of  all.  In  one 
thing  they  agree — few  have  been  permanently  successful. 

A  kitchen  in  Carthage,  Mo.,  was  in  operation  from  September, 
1907,  to  January,  1911.  In  this  case  the  patrons  came  to  the  house 
in  which  the  kitchen  was  located  for  all  their  meals.  Each  family 
furnished  its  own  table,  chairs,  dishes,  linen,  silver,  and  also  such 
table  decorations,  jellies,  pickles,  and  other  "  extras  "  as  it  desired, 
thus  following  its  own  tastes  and  standards.  The  tables  were  sulii- 
ciently  far  apart  to  permit  of  intimate  conversation  at  each,  a  feature 
which  was  believed  to  increase  the  home-like  feeling  of  the  place. 
This  feeling  was  carefully  fostered  by  the  paid  superintendent,  and 
much  of  the  success  of  the  venture  was  laid  to  her  ability  to  make 
the  members  feel  that  their  individual  tastes  were  not  disregarded. 
Its  failure  was  attributed  to  the  steady  rise  in  price  of  materials  and 
labor.  Those  members  who  could  not  afford  to  pay  the  increased  cost 
for  keeping  up  the  original  standard  apparently  preferred  to  do 
their  economizing  in  the  privacy  of  their  own  homes.    Of  course  the 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  47 

decrease  in  membership  raised  the  overhead  cost  per  capita  and  thus 
forced  an  increase  in  the  charges  out  of  proportion  to  the  increase  in 
the  cost  in  food  and  wages. 

To  provide  the  original  equipment  for  the  kitchen  an  assessment  of 
$3  per  adult  and  $1/50  per  child  was  made.  There  y^ere  originally 
sixty  members,  including  10  or  12  children.  This  money  was  used 
to  equip  the  kitchen,  a  cheap  but  large  ice  box,  a  cook  stove,  cooking 
vessels,  serving  table,  furniture  for  servants'  rooms,  and  muslin  cur- 
tains for  the  entire  house  being  provided. 

For  the  first  three  months  the  weekly  price  was  $3  for  adult,  $1.50 
for  child.  As  the  number  decreased  and  the  prices  of  food  advanced 
this  amount  was  increased.  When  the  number  decreased  to  50,  the 
price  of  board  advanced  to  $3.50.  In  the  fall  of  1909  the  number 
decreased  to  45.  For  the  next  two  years  board  was  $4  a  week,  $2  for 
children.  In  1910  there  was  a  very  bad  drought  through  that  part  of 
the  country  and  vegetables  and  fruits  were  very  high.  Potatoes  sold 
all  the  fall  for  $8  a  bushel.  The  number  of  members  had  fallen  off 
still  more  and  an  extra  assessment  of  20  cents  per  week,  per  capita, 
was  made  for  the  last  twelve  weeks  that  the  place  remained  in  opera- 
tion. 

The  equipment  purchased  with  the  original  assessment  was  in  a 
dilapidated  condition  at  the  end  of  four  years.  There  was  nothing  of 
any  value  but  the  stove,  which  was  sold  at  one-half  of  the  price  paid 
for  it  originally.  The  curtains  and  a  few  things  were  sold  to  a 
second-hand  man.  The  money  obtained  for  these  was  used  to  make 
good  the  deficit  in  the  final  accounts. 

Another  cooperative  venture  in  Evanston,  111.,  which  attracted 
a  good  deal  of  attention,  lasted  four  years.  According  to  this  plan, 
food  could  be  sent  to  the  kitchen  from  the  homes,  cooked  and 
returned. 

Charlotte  Talley,  writing  of  "A  Cooperative  kitchen  that  is  meet- 
ing a  need  in  its  community,"  says  that  it  took  this  kitchen  two  years 
to  develop  in  the  minds  of  its  founders  before  becoming  a  reality.^ 
A  society  was  first  organized.  Although  $1,000  was  desired  as  a 
working  capital,  the  venture  started  with  $900,  90  persons  having 
taken  one  share  each.  A  communal  dining  room  was  tastefully 
equipped,  but  meals  were  also  sent  to  the  homes  in  automobiles  hired 
for  the  purpose.  Maids  were  sometimes  sent  from  this  kitchen  to 
serve  the  meals  in  the  homes,  and  catering  was  done  for  entertain- 
ments. The  prices  charged  for  the  meals  were,  for  subscribers: 
Breakfast,  $0.25;  luncheon,  $0.35;  dinner,  $0.50.  Ten  cents  addi- 
tional for  breakfast  and  luncheon,  and  15  cents  more  for  dinner  were 
charged  to  nonsubscribers.    A  fee  of  10  cents  was  charged  for  de- 

^  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  toI.  VII,  August-September,  1815. 


48  AGBITOIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS, 

livery.  The  food-carrier  lused  was  the  Swedish  container  consisting 
of  a  tier  of  enamel  or  aluminum  dishes  which  fit  into  a  receptacle 
like  an  ice-cream  container. 

This  kitchen  had  five  workers:  Manager,  assistant  manager,  cook, 
butler,  and  waitress.  "On  a  week  investigated,  420  persons  were 
served.  The  per  capita  cost  was  $0.31.  On  this  amount  the  kitchen 
broke  even.'* 

The  writer  has  no  data  as  to  the  effect  war  conditions  has  had  on 
any  of  these  ventures,  with  the  exception  of  the  Montclair  community 
venture,  probably  the  most  successful  up  to  the  war  of  any  of  the 
American  experiments.  War  conditions  made  it  necessary  for  it  to 
go  out  of  business,  not,  however,  without  having  taught  many  valu- 
able lessons  in  the  plan  of  capitalization  and  organization  which  may 
be  used  later  by  others  who  believe  that  the  marvelous  increase  in  co- 
operation in  European  countries  will  finally  have  its  counterpart  in 
the  United  States. 

Improvements  were  gradually  made  by  the  education  of  dealers 
through  these  ventures  in  the  kind  of  food  carrier  needed.  The 
kitchens  found  also  that  they  had  to  be  less  educational  at  the  start 
and  cater  more  to  individual  tastes. 

The  following  story  of  the  brave  beginning  and  untimely  end  of  a 
conmiunal  kitchen  in  New  York  in  1918  holds  in  it  much  that  is 
suggestive.    This  venture  does  not  stand  alone. 

The  kitchen  whose  story  is  to  be  told  was  opened  by  a  volunteer 
workers'  organization  in  a  congested  district  of  upper  New  York, 
where  all  nationalities  and  religions  are  present.  Many  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  neighborhood  were  known  to  be  suffering  from  malnutri- 
tion, and  living  conditions  were  bad.  It  was  the  purpose  of  the 
women  interested  to  cater  to  the  most  needy  part  of  the  neighborhood. 

The  money  for  equipment  was  donated,  but  it  was  hoped  that  the 
kitchen  could  be  made  to  pay  running  expenses.  On  this  basis,  it 
was  calculated  that  from  35  to  40  per  cent  must  be  added  to  the 
actual  cost  of  the  food,  in  order  to  make  the  kitchen  pay  its  way. 
Rental  was  $35  a  month.  A  good  cook  was  secured  for  $12  a  week. 
She  was  given  two  meals  a  day.  Her  helper  was  paid  $1  a  day,  with 
meals.  The  other  helpers,  four  or  five  in  number,  were  volunteer 
workers. 

The  equipment  was  simple,  as  it  was  not  intended  to  provide  a  wide 
range  of  cooked  food,  but  rather  to  specialize  in  certain  dishes  which 
were  well  known  and  liked.  Among  these  were  fish  cakes,  clam 
chowder,  and  stews,  preferably  beef  stew  with  vegetables.  Baked 
apples  and  prunes  were  the  only  desserts  prepared.  The  apples 
were  popularized  at  three  for  5  cents,  but  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  price  to  four  for  10  cents.    The  fish  cakes  were 


AGENCIES  FOB  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  49 

standardized  at  three  for  5  cents,  although  money  was  sometimes  lost, 
which  had  to  be  made  up  on  soups  and  stews.  All  the  buying  was 
done  in  the  neighborhood  by  the  supervisor,  who  was  one  of  the  vol- 
unteer workers.  This  was  thought  best  for  two  reasons— in  order 
to  win  the  friendship  of  the  community  and  in  order  to  buy  in  small 
quantities  and  spare  the  expense  of  storeroom  and  ice.  As  little  as 
possible  was  carried  over,  so  that  a  small  ice  box  was  all  that  was 
necessary.  Large  quantities  were  never  prepared.  Even  with  the 
fish  cakes,  which  were  most  in  demand,  it  was  found  that  they  were 
much  better  when  prepared  in  small  quantities  and  constantly  made 
fresh.  In  answer  to  the  question  whether  recipes  can  be  "  doubled 
up  "  with  like  results,  the  workers  in  this  kitchen  were  emphatic  in 
their  negatives.  They  also  said  that  their  customers  were  as  quick 
to  note  and  complain  of  any  change  as  customers  of  higher  priced 
caterers  would  be. 

The  kitchen  opened  very  successfully,  catering  to  from  130  to  150 
women  a  day.  Although  it  had  been  intended  to  reach  the  more 
needy  women  of  the  neighborhood,  the  kitchen  was  embarrassed  to 
find  that  it  was  more  patronized  by  the  prosperous  and  thrifty  ele- 
ment. After  the  venture  was  well  started,  however,  it  was  found 
that  a  prejudice  was  growing  against  it,  not  because  it  was  a  charity, 
but  because  the  spiritual  advisers  of  the  patrons  thought  it  was  a 
"communistic  venture."  Just  whether  this  was  the  main  cause  of 
its  decline  is  not  clear.  It  was  said  here,  as  elsewhere,  that  a  change 
of  cooks  might  influence  the  patronage  over  a  long  period,  emphasiz- 
ing the  fact  that  the  reputation  of  a  kitchen,  as  of  any  commercial 
venture,  must  be  maintained  unimpaired.  The  use  of  so  many  vol- 
unteer helpers  is  another  reason  given.  Still  another  was  the  great 
fluctuation  of  prices  in  the  markets  and  the  difficulty  in  getting  some 
of  the  most  necessary  articles. 

The  supervisor  of  this  kitchen  said  that  a  similar  one  could  be 
equipped  for  $800  to  $1,000,  provided  the  gas  company  would  loan  a 
stove.  The  most  expensive  article  in  the  equipment  was  a  30  gallon 
copper  kettle,  an  indispensable  article. 

An  effort  to  meet  the  needs  of  American  middle  class  families  has 
recently  been  inaugurated  under  the  patronage  of  some  prominent 
men  and  women.    Its  announcements  state  that  the  service  is : 

Designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  great  mass  of  independent  homes  *  ♦  ♦ 
not  organized  as  a  charity,  but  as  a  permanent  effort  at  social  betterment,  on  a 
sound,  self-sustaining  basis  that  will  yet  save  the  consumer  from  commercial 
exploitation.^ 

The  service  is  designed  chiefly  for: 

The  business  or  professional  woman  living  alone,  the  young  family  living 
on  a  small  salary  without  maid  service,  the  artist  in  studios,  the  large  family 

»  Prospectus  of  the  American  Cooked  Food  Service,  1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


^  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

in  which  the  mother  is  verging  on  physical  breakdown  tlirough  the  shortage  in 
domestic  help,  and  others  ranging  from  the  isolated  occupant  of  the  hall  bed- 
room in  a  rooming  house,  to  families  living  in  private  homes  and  the  highest 
type  of  apartment  houses. 

In  an  estimate  for  the  economies  of  this  service  it  is  said : 

Probably  for  the  majority  of  patrons  the- cooked  meals  are  delivered  at  the 
home  for  the  same  price  that  the  retail  buyer  would  pay  for  the  raw  food 
stuffs  ♦  *  *  Individual  economies  come  through  lessened  maid  service, 
saving  in  food  waste,  and  the  fuel  and  upkeep  of  the  individual  kitchen. 

The  first  station  of  this  service  was  opened  February  1,  1918,  and 
has  been  in  successful  operation  ever  since.  Other  stations  will  soon 
be  opened  in  cities  of  varying  size. 

The  cooked  food  is  placed  at  the  central  station  in  containers  that 
keep  it  hot  for  several  hours.  Separate  containers  carry  salads, 
breads,  and  cold  desserts.  These  containers  are  delivered  by  motor  ^ 
service  shortly  before  meal  time  and  called  for  at  regular  times  there- 
after. Dinners  range  in  price  from  $0.50  to  $1,  luncheons  from  $0.35 
to  $0.75.  It  has  been  found  necessary  to  charge  for  the  bread  service 
because  of  the  rise  in  prices.  Better  rates  are  given  for  larger  fami- 
lies where  more  portions  can  be  delivered  in  one  set  of  containers, 
and  special  arrangements  may  be  made  for  children's  meals,  etc. 

New  stations  of  the  American  Cooked  Food  Service,  the  name  of 
this  agenc}^  which  aims  to  extend  its  service  to  every  part  of  the 
coimtry,  are  financed  partly  on  a  cooperative  or  popular  subscription 
plan,  whereby  at  least  GO  per  cent  of  the  stock  required  to  equip  and 
start  a  station  (a  total  of  from  $15,000  to  $25,000)  is  subscribed  in 
the  locality.  This  stock  is  in  shares  of  $100  each,  and  may  be  pur- 
chased outright  in  amounts  of  from  one  to  twenty  shares,  or,  by 
special  arrangements,  may  be  paid  for  in  weekly  installments,  which 
it  may  be  possible  to  save  through  economies  resulting  from  use  of  the 
service. 

It  is  stated  by  the  president  of  the  service  that  the  unit  of  service 
on  which  estimates  as  to  equipment,  etc.,  is  to  be  based  will  be  limited 
to  500,  because  beyond  that  number  the  home-like  quality  of  the  food 
can  not  be  preserved.  In  case  the  demand  for  service  exceeds  the 
capacity  of  the  station,  stockholders  are  given  the  i:)reference.  It  is 
believed  from  the  experience  already  obtained  that  a  center  will  be 
financially  self-supporting  when  the  full  quota  of  500  are  served.^ 

The  success  of  this  unique  experiment  will  be  watched  with  in- 
terest by  all  who  hope  to  see  a  standardization  of  the  efforts  now 
being  made  to  meet  a  situation  which  is  new  to  Americans,  so  ac- 
customed to  plenty,  but  now  called  upon  to  economize  not  from 
purely  selfish  motives,  but  in  order  that  we  may  divide  with  those 

iThis  account  was  prepared  in  December,  1918. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS.  51 

who  are  in  sore  need.  Those  interested  in  methods  of  relieving  the 
domestic  labor  shortage  will  also  be  anxious  to  see  how  far  it  alle- 
Adates  what  in  many  instances  is  becoming  a  hopeless  condition. 

A  similar  service,  but  on  a  much  smaller  scale,  was  privately  started 
in  1918  in  Burlington,  Vt.  The  containers  are  made  by  a  local 
dealer ;  they  are  metal  boxes  with  insulating  walls  and  a  door  in  front 
into  which  fit  the  trays  for  the  different  foods.  The  chief  criticism 
reported  of  this  service  was  that  the  menus  were  vegetarian  to  ac- 
cord with  the  ideas  of  the  founder  and  manager.  It  has  been  is  suc- 
cessful operation  for  some  months. 

The  community  kitchen  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  is  a  significant  enter- 
prise born  of  war-time  needs.  The  following  description  is  com- 
piled from  correspondence  and  reports  in  the  files  of  the  woman's 
committee  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  with  which  the  St. 
Louis  workers  were  affiliated.  This  semiphilanthropic  venture 
closely  follows  the  lines  of  some  of  the  early  communal  kitchens  in 
England.  Although  it  is  still  too  young  to  give  any  basis  for 
prophecy,  there  is  much  for  other  communities  to  learn  from  its 
methods. 

In  carrying  out  the  w^ork  of  the  United  States  Food  Administra- 
tion, it  became  evident  to  the  women's  central  committee  on  food  con- 
servation in  St.  Louis  that  the  problems  of  the  city's  congested  dis- 
tricts were  not  the  usual  ones  of  the  associated  charities.  They 
were  rather  new  difficulties  born  of  war  conditions  and  directly  con- 
nected with  the  present  food  emergency.  An  investigation  carried 
on  tlirough  the  winter  months  of  1917-18  showed  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  feed  a  family  of  six  with  an  adequate  healthful  diet  on  a 
dolhir  a  day,  supposedly  the  maximum  allowance  for  food  on  a 
weekly  income  of  $15. 

After  the  survey  that  showed  the  acuteness  of  the  food  problem 
among  the  working  classes,  the  women's  central  committee  put  in 
tlie  field  a  corps  of  visiting  housekeepers  to  work  with  the  associated 
charities.  It  was  found  by  these  workers  that  "  the  old  problems 
of  ignorance  in  regard  to  home  management,  sorely  aggravated  in 
the  present  crisis,  were  found  to  be  playing  havoc  with  the  health 
of  the  community  in  the  poor  districts  of  the  city." 

As  the  months  of  the  winter  went  by,  the  idea  of  community 
kitchens  as  the  only  economic  way  to  solve  some  of  the  problems 
made  a  strong  appeal  to  the  workers.  The  increasing  number  of 
women  in  industry  with  dependent  families  and  their  impossible 
situation  in  regard  to  providing  proper  food  for  their  families, 
finally  confirmed  the  need  for  radical  measures  of  assistance.  It 
was  decided  to  establish  a  chain  of  community  kitchens  under  tho 


52  AGEN^CIES  rOK  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

direction  of  the  women's  central  committee  on  food  conservation  as 
a  war  measure.  At  these  kitchens  an  adequate  ration  was  to  be  pro- 
vided at  a  cost  on  the  cash-and-carry  plan  for  that  part  of  the  popu- 
lation at  present  unable  to  feed  itself  either  comfortably  or  health- 
fully. 

In  announcing  the  decision  to  open  community  kitchens,  the  com- 
mittee called  attention,  first,  to  the  importance  of  keeping  up 
standards  of  health  in  war  times;  second,  the  experience  of  our 
allies  in  the  necessity  of  proper  feeding  for  factory  workers; 
"third,  but  not  last  in  degree  of  importance  or  seriousness,  comes 
the  tremendous  responsibility  of  fostering  the  health  of  the  children 
of  to-day,  upon  whom  will  fall  the  enormous  burdens  of  the  recon- 
struction period."  Attention  was  also  called  to  the  saving  of  fuel 
and  foodstuffs. 

It  was  estimated  that  a  chain  of  five  kitchens  would  meet  the  needs 
of  St.  Louis  with  the  food  situation  as  it  was  in  the  spring  of  1918. 
The  location  of  the  kitchens  was  to  be  determined  by  the  poverty  of 
the  neighborhood,  the  presence  of  factories,  especially  those  employ- 
ing women,  by  the  proximity  of  a  market,  and  by  the  density  of 
population. 

The  kitchens  were  to  be  conducted  on  the  following  schedule:  In 
the  morning  from  6.30  to  8.30,  cash-and-carry  milk,  bread,  and 
cereals  Avill  be  for  sale.  At  noon  the  cafeteria  will  serve  a  complete 
meal  in  a  single  dish,  of  soup,  with  a  roll,  and  coffee.  Soup  wagon- 
ettes will  be  w^heeled  to  the  factories  in  the  neighborhood,  each 
wagon  equipped  to  serve  80  pints,  and  carrying  in  attached  con- 
tainers the  same  number  of  2-ounce  rolls.  A  pint  of  soup  and  a 
roll  are  sold  for  5  cents.  From  4.30  to  8  the  cafeteria  will  be  open 
for  the  evening  meal,  consisting  of  meat,  a  vegetable,  a  starch,  and 
a  dessert.  Patrons  who  desire  to  carry  their  meal  home  will  call  for 
it  in  three  buckets — one  for  meat  and  vegetables,  one  for  the  starch, 
and  one  for  the  dessert.  There  will  be  full  and  half  portions,  the 
entire  meal  to  cost  per  person,  5  cents  for  the  half-portion  meal  and 
10  cents  for  the  full  portion. 

Preparatory  work  was  done  in  the  factories  by  members  of  the 
Consumers'  League  to  enlist  the  interest  and  cooperation  of  the  man- 
agers. It  was  emphasized  that  the  kitchen  was  to  be  a  self-sup- 
porting, self-respecting  enterprise,  in  no  way  to  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  a  charity.  It  was  to  be  an  efficient  way  of  handling  the  food 
problem  on  a  community  plan.  It  was  purposed  to  make  the  kitchen 
a  neighborhood  center  for  information  in  regard  to  questions  of  diet, 
of  general  hygiene,  and  of  better  home  management.  It  was  arranged 
to  have  cooking  demonstrations  and  talks  given  by  the  St.  Louis 
home  demonstration  agents  of  the  agricultural  extension  service. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  53 

Tlie  money  for  the  establishment  of  these  kitchens  was  earned 
through  a  patriotic  food  sliow.  Of  the  $5,000  thus  acquired,  $2,000 
was  set  aside  for  the  experiment.  It  was  agreed  to  open  one  kitchen 
and  run  it  for  several  months  before  opening  the  other  four.  The 
business  basis  agreed  upon  was  as  follows: 

The  daily  overhead  was  estimated  by  adding  the  salaries,  rent, 
light,  fuel,  ice,  to  the  actual  cost  of  raw  materials,  plus  insurance  and 
dei)reciation.  Depreciation  was  estimated  at  1/365  of  the  initial  in- 
vestment. To  this  was  added  another  1/365  of  the  initial  investment 
representing  the  portion  of  the  investment  indebtedness  to  be  paid 
back  daily.  On  some  days  during  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  first 
kitchen,  it  was  possible  to  meet  this  complete  proportion.  A  fault 
in  equipment  which  made  it  impossible  to  take  care  of  the  number 
of  people  necessary  to  meet  the  overhead  had  to  be  remedied  during 
the  first  month.  It  Avas  estimated  on  the  basis  of  reports  of  other 
kitchens,  especially  those  in  Great  Britain,  that  an  allowance  of  30 
per  cent  over  the  actual  cost  of  materials  would  cover  the  overhead 
and  make  the  kitchen  self-supporting. 

The  first  kitchen,  whose  initial  equipment  cost  about  $1,000,  was 
opened  at  1729-1731  South  Seventh  Street,  in  a  quaint  building  in 
the  heart  of  a  factory  district.  There  are  ten  large  factories  employ- 
ing many  women  in  the  immediate  neighborhood.  Four  day  nurs- 
eries are  filled  to  capacity  in  this  district,  giving  proof  that  the 
mothers  are  at  Avork  in  the  factories.  Social  workers  state  that  there 
Avas  no  more  needy  district  in  the  city  during  the  winter,  1917-18. 
A  market  is  within  the  block,  also  a  cannery  conducted  during  the 
sunmier  by  the  Avomen's  central  committee  on  food  conservation.  In 
the  auditorium  of  a  library  in  the  block  tAvo  cooking  schools  have 
been  conducted  by  the  committee,  one  in  the  spring  of  1917  and  one 
this  year,  f^ith  an  average  attendance  of  200  foreign-born  women, 
Poles,  Lithuanians,  Hungarians,  and  Germans. 

The  building  in  Avhich  the  kitchen  Avas  opened  lends  itself  admir- 
ably to  the  work.  The  caretaker  and  his  Avife  occupy  one  of  the  two 
second  floor  apartments.  The  Avife  is  an  unusually  intelligent  Hun- 
garian Avho  was  quick  to  see  that  her  home  should  measure  up  to  the 
standard  of  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen  below.  On  the  opening  day 
slie  threAV  open  her  doors  without  any  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the 
couimittee,-  to  the  guests  of  the  kitchen.  It  is  hoped  that  this  apart- 
ruont  can  be  made  a  model  for  a  family  of  small  means.  The  other 
apartment  is  to  be  made  into  an  old  clothes  clinic.  On  the  third 
floor  a  large  store  is  used  for  storage  of  fumigated  clothes,  and  for 
groceries  and  supplies.  The  basement  offers  storage  for  the  canned 
fruits  and  vegetables  to  be  preserved  during  the  summer  for  the  use 
of  the  kitchens. 


54  AGE2irCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

Much  of  the  initial  equipment  was  given  below  cost  by  those  in- 
terested and,  in  some  cases,  as  an  outright  gift.  The  chuia,  shelves, 
lighting  fixtui'es,  wash  machines,  mangles,  water  heaters,  tea-towel 
<^ryers,  and  gas  steam  heaters  w^ere  donated.  The  cooking  equip- 
ment consists  of  two  ovens  and  nine  stock  pots,  heavy  copper,  stand- 
ing each  on  an  iron  tripod.  There  are  four  10-gallon  stock  pots, 
four  10-gallon  double  boilers,  and  one  25-gallon  soup  kettle.  The 
cooking  is  done  in  tlie  serving  room;  a  large  counter  shuts  off  the 
kitchen  end  from  the  cafeteria.  The  preparation  room  in  the  rear 
is  cemented.  Here  vegetables  are  cleaned,  groceries  received,  and  a 
lai-ge  ice-box  located.  Uniforms,  tea-towels,  and  dishes  are  washed 
in  the  rear  rooms.  A  model  back  yard  poultry  unit  has  been  in- 
stalled in  the  back  yard  by  the  poultry  committee  of  the  production 
division  of  the  women's  central  committee  on  food  conservation, 

A  bill  board  in  front  of  the  building  announces  the  menu  for  the 
next  day.    A  large  painted  wooden  sign  over  the  entrance  reads : 


The  woman  in  charge  of  the  kitchen  has  had  experience  in  a 
similar  enterprise  abroad.  A  volimteer  worker  has  charge  of  the 
cash  register.  The  women  of  the  neighborhood  give  much  volimteer 
service.  They  have  hemmed  all  the  dish  towels;  they  have  helped 
with  the  cleaning;  they  have  washed  every  utensil  and  dish  that  has 
come  into  the  building.  "  The  purpose  from  the  beginning  has  been 
to  make  them  feel  that  it  was  their  Idtchen  and  their  attitude  bears 
proof  that  this  has  been  successfully  carried  out." 

The  seating  capacity  of  the  cafeteria  is  QO^  with  room  to  increase 
it.  Within  an  hour  120  persons  can  be  served  at  the  tables.  It  was 
found  that  about  50  per  cent  of  the  customers  were  for  the  cafeteria 
and  50  per  cent  cash-and-carry  meals.  In  addition  to  the  service  at 
the  kitchen,  wagonettes  take  out  meals  to  factories  near  by.  One  of 
the  factories  sends  a  porter  for  the  wagonette,  and  a  woman  in 
Ploover  costume  is  in  attendance.  The  kitchen  has  more  calls  for 
this  kind  of  service  than  it  can  supply  at  present,  but  will  make  pro- 
vision to  meet  it  as  soon  as  it  becomes  evident  that  the  demand  is  to 
be  a  steady  one.  One  of  the  workers  says:  "The  only  way  to  find 
out  whether  an  idea  is  going  to  be  popular  is  to  make  an  actual 
experiment." 

The  cash-and-carry  bucket  meal  is  served  from  the  counter. 
Women  leave  their  buckets  on  their  way  to  work.  The  capacity 
for  the  evening  meal  is  250 ;  for  the  noon  hour,  480 ;  at  breakfast  9G0 
persons  can  be  served  with  cerea.1.  Since  the  cooking  equipment  is 
in  units  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  c^ipacity  on  two  weeks'  notice. 

It  was  a  question  as  to  whether  it  would  pay  to  keep  the  kitchen 
open  on  Sunday,  but  it  was  thought  better  to  try  it  out,  so  meals  were 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  55 

served  the  first  tliree  Sundays.  There  was  a  loss  each  time.  The 
kitchen  was  then  closed  on  Sunday.  To  quote  a  worker:  "Appar- 
ently the  women  employed  in  factories  the  week  round  like  to  have  a 
thoroughly  domestic  time  on  Sunday." 

This  wholehearted  and  carefully  worked  out  experiment  in  com- 
munal kitchens  will  be  watched  with  great  interest.  It  is  too  early 
to  venture  prophecy  as  to  its  permanent  value^  except  on  the  basis  of 
our  previous  studies.  It  is  still  an  open  question  in  America  as  to 
whether  the  enthusiasm  of  the  volunteer  worker  can  make  up  for  her 
lack  of  training.  And  inasmuch  as  even  trained  dietitians  and 
cooks  were  found  in  England  to  be  bettered  by  a  special  training  for 
national  kitchen  work,  it  may  be  best  to  utilize  the  good  wdll  of  vol- 
unteer workers  in  the  present  emergency.  It  will  be  well,  however, 
to  remember  that  in  the  long  run  it  is  necessary  to  use  paid  workers 
who  are  sure  to  be  in  their  place  at  fixed  hours  and  who  are  more 
amenable  to  discipline  when  an  experiment  is  on  its  way  to  become 
an  institution. 

The  problem  of  the  feeding  of  school  cliildren  has  been  considered 
in  several  American  cities,  but  in  no  such  definite  and  organized  way 
thixDughout  the  country  as  has  been  done  in  Germany,  and  in  EnglaiKl 
since  the  statistics  gathered  as  a  result  of  the  Boer  War  have  brought 
her  face  to  face  with  the  effects  of  malnutrition  on  her  population. 
It  had  proceeded  far  enough,  however,  for  such  cities  as  Boston  and 
New  York  to  have  well-worked-out  plans  for  central  kitchens  from 
which  a  wholesome  meal  can  be  sent  to  thousands  of  school  children 
every  school  day.  When  the  problem  of  communal  Iritchens  con- 
fronted the  British  ministry  of  food,  it  was  to  the  local  education 
boards  that  they  most  often  looked  for  equipment  and  direction, 
and  it  was  to  the  dietitians  trained  for  the  schools  that  they  looked 
for  the  workers  in  the  early  national  kitchens.  It  is  thei-efore  with 
some  relief  that  we  find  in  our  own  country  that  a  worker  in  tho 
Boston  central  kitchen  has  worked  out  under  the  supervision  of  the 
research  department  of  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 
Union  a  complete  scheme  for  the  equipment  of  a  central  kitchen.  In- 
formation is  also  available  concerning  the  equipment  of  the  central 
kitchen  of  the  New  York  School  Lunch  Committee.  These  two  organi- 
zations have  most  kindly  allow^ed  this  material  to  be  printed  as  ap- 
pendices to  this  report.  (See  Appendix  A,  pp.  65  to  73,  and  Ap- 
pendix B,  pp.  74  and  75.) 

In  a  recent  attempt  to  study  the  system  by  which  lunches  are  sup- 
plied to  school  children  in  New  York  City,  the  first  discovery  made 
was  that  there  is  only  one  New  York  City  agency  serving  lunches 
to  school  children,  the  New  York  school  lunch  committee,  105  East 
Twenty -second  Street,  New  York.    This  committee  has  no  connection 


56  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

with  the  board  of  education,  except  that  several  years  ago  the  board 
appropriated  $25,000  to  assist  in  providing  schools  with  the  necessary 
permanent  equipment,  such  as  sinks,  gas  ranges,  copper  boilers, 
closets,  tables,  benches,  et€.  There  is  a  Brooklyn  school  lunch  com- 
mittee with  activities  confined  to  Brooklyn;  but  neither  of  these 
school  lunch  committees  is  in  any  way  connected  with  the  other,  or 
with  the  board  of  education,  except  in  the  single  case  of  the  appro- 
priation specified  above. 

The  New  York  school  lunch  committee  has  been  in  the  field  longest 
and  has  in  operation  a  large  central  kitchen.  This  kitchen  was  fitted 
up  at  a  total  expense  of  about  $20,000,  through  the  kindness  of  a 
woman  interested  in  the  project,  and  through  the  grant  by  the  board 
of  education  of  an  old  building  once  used  as  a  school  annex.  From 
this  kitchen  as  a  center  25  schools  are  supplied.  With  its  equipment, 
however.  Miss  Elizabeth  M.  Fee,  the  supervisor,  estimates  that  it  is 
working  at  only  about  one-third  its  capacity.  On  this  basis,  it  should 
be  serving  75  of  the  208  schools  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx.  The 
need  for  this  service  is  obvious.  In  a  statement  made  by  the  com- 
mittee it  is  shown  that  the  seven  to  ten  thousand  children  reached  by 
the  school  lunch  service  are  only  5  per  cent  of  the  children  in  need  of 
the  service  in  Greater  New  York. 

In  a  pamphlet  on  "  School  Lunches "  issued  by  the  New  York 
School  Lunch  Committee,  the  following  paragraph  on  "What  it 
Costs  "  appears  :^ 

The  committee  has  constantly  aimed  to  make  the  school  luncli  service  self- 
supporting  to  the  extent  of  covering  the  cost  of  the  food  and  its  preparation. 
The  cost  of  equipment  and  supervision,  it  feels,  ought  not  to  be  paid  for  by  the 
pupils  but  by  the  city  as  a  legitimate  charge  against  education.  While  the 
lunch  sales  have  thus  far  always  covered  the  cost  of  the  food,  they  have  never 
covered  entirely  the  cost  of  preparing  it.  The  financial  statement  for  the  year 
191G-17  shows  that  the  receipts  in  addition  to  paying  for  the  food,  paid  for  60 
per  cent  of  the  labor  costs.  It  is  likely  that  by  a  wise  extension  and  cooperation 
of  the  work,  the  remaining  40  per  cent  of  this  item  could  also  be  covered. 

Excerpts  from  the  paragraph  on  "What  the  Children  Eat"  are 
significant  in  a  forecast  of  what  would  bo  one  of  the  problems  of  a 
community  venture  in  cooking  in  an  American  community,  with  its 
variety  of  race  and  religion : 

Racial  and  religious  tastes  and  prejudices  must  be  carefully  considered  in 
determining  the  menus  offered.  In  Jewish  schools  only  food  which  complies 
with  the  Jewish  religion  and  tradition  is  offered ;  in  a  similar  way  racial  prefer- 
ences are  catered  to  in  Italian  schools.  In  schools  attended  by  both  Hebrews 
and  Italians,  the  situation  is  still  further  complicated,  and  the  problem  is  met  by 
offering  in  the  menu  both  Italian  and  Jewish  dishes.  *  *  ♦  The  committee 
has  found  that  the  improperly  fed  child  at  first  rebels  against  the  kind  of  food 

1  School  lunches:  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Toor,  105  East 
Twenty -second   Street,  New  York. 


AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS.  57 

offered  in  the  school  lunch,  but  that  he  gradually  comes  to  like  it  and  eventually 
demands  the  same  kind  of  food  at  home.  By  this  rather  indirect  method  the 
food  habits  of  the  entire  family  are  gradually  improved. 

This  same  society  maintains  a  kitchen  on  the  west  side  in  a  district 
where  many  of  the  mothers  are  at  work  all  day.  It  was  founded 
by  donation  and  may  be  called  semiphilanthropic  in  purpose.  It  cor- 
responds more  closely  to  the  Yolkskiichen  than  any  kitchen  we  have 
hitherto  described.^ 

Looking  back  over  the  history  of  group  or  mass  feeding  and  re- 
viewing the  various  experiments,  both  successful  and  unsuccessful, 
with  a  view  to  the  situation  in  the  United  States  to-day,  there  are 
certain  conclusions  to  be  drawn.  First  of  all,  America  has  been  a 
land  of  plenty,  and  the  wars,  famines,  and  pestilences  which  have 
been  prolonged  enough  in  their  effects  in  Europe  to  bring  beyond 
the  experimental  stage  such  institutions  as  Eumford  kitchens,  Volks- 
kilchen,  cucini  popolari,  etc.,  have  never  come  to  us.  The  pressure 
which  will  lead  to  our  own  experimentation  will  be  not  alone  the 
recessity  growing  out  of  the  war,  but  something  else  which  is  a  part 
of  the  idealism  at  the  root  of  the  whole-hearted  enthusiasm  which 
has  energized  our  war-time  efforts.  The  education  of  the  American 
people  to  after-war  conditions,  in  which  we  may  still  be  responsible 
for  the  food  of  peoples  who  otherwise  would  starve,  will  have  much 
to  do  in  preventing  a  return  to  our  old  laissez-faire  attitude  toward 
the  world  outside  America. 

There  are  not  more  than  three  agencies  for  the  preparation  of  food 
for  the  household  outside  the  home  which  can  be  said  to  have  passed 
the  experimental  stage  in  America.  Two  of  them,  the  bakery  and 
the  delicatessen  shop,  are  commercial  in  character  and  are  managed 
by  their  owners  with  no  immediate  concern  for  the  public  welfare 
other  than  that  enforced  by  our  laws.  The  other  venture,  still  much 
less  mature  with  us  than  in  European  countries,  is  the  organization 
of  school  feeding.  Sucli  development  of  this  phase  of  our  national 
life  as  can  be  found  in  cities  like  New  York  and  Boston  gives  some 
material  on  which  to  proceed  in  community  ventures.  But  it  must 
be  emphasized  that  school  lunches  are  never  expected  to  "  pay  their 
way  "  in  the  same  sense  as  that  in  which  a  middle-class  community 
kitchen  must  pay  its  way  to  be  self-respecting.  The  items  in  the  cost 
price  of  the  food  of  a  community  kitchen  must  include  every  detail 
of  a  commercial  venture  except  the  profit  to  the  enterpriser,  with  a 
lessened  bill  for  advertising  and  distribution. 

In  order  that  such  conscientious  experimentation  in  communal 
feeding  as  shall  be  made  in  the  near  future  may  profit  by  past  mis- 

1  Forecast  Magazine,  May,  1018, 


58         AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

takes,  there  are  certain  items  of  practical  advice  to  be  gathered  from 
other  ventures. 

Mr.  Harris,  in  his  chapters  on  cooperation  in  America,  says  that 
a  review  of  cooperative  ventures  among  us  shows  that  there  has  al- 
most never  been  a  true  cooperating  group  back  of  the  undertaking. 
A  true  cooperating  group  will  go  into  such  an  undertaking  with  the 
purpose  of  seeing  it  through;  not  just  to  stay  in  until  the  novelty  is 
worn  off  or  until  hard  times  appear,  as  they  do  at  some  stage  in  all 
ventures.  It  takes  courage,  persistence,  and  business  management, 
as  in  any  commercial  undertaking,  to  make  a  communal  kitchen 
succeed. 

There  must  be  the  most  careful  bookkeeping  and  checking  up  of 
costs  from  the  beginning.  Mrs.  AbeFs  suggestion  of  a  stock  company, 
seconded  by  Mr.  Harris,  and  put  in  practice  by  the  American  Cooked 
Food  Service,  is  excellent,  and  a  step  in  the  direction  of  the  American 
way  of  doing  things. 

While  emphasizing  the  business  side  of  such  a  venture,  it  must  bo 
remembered  that  there  is  a  difference  between  a  "  commercial  success  " 
and  a  "  national  advantage."  And  one  of  the  most  patriotic  of  the 
purposes  of  communal  kitchens  in  America  will  be  to  take  advantage 
of  our  recent  awakening  to  the  fact  that  with  the  plenty  about  us  we 
are  not  "  well  fed  "  in  a  dietetic  sense;  that  we  all,  rich  and  poor  alike, 
need  to  be  taught  to  eat  the  right  things  in  the  right  combination. 
The  educational  part  of  this  venture  is  as  important  in  the  long  run 
as  the  economic,  even  though  it  may  not  make  so  strong  a  popular 
appeal. 

In  America,  we  have  not  passed  the  stage  of  the  volunteer  worker. 
Her  energy  and  enthusiasm  have  been  a  national  asset  since  our  en- 
trance into  the  war.  It  seems  almost  a  gratuitous  insult  to  call  at- 
tention to  her  shortcomings  when  she  shows  none,  in  America.  But 
the  lesson  to  be  learned  from  European  experience  is  that  she  must  be 
used  sparingly  and  under  strict  supervision  by  trained  workers  in  a 
venture  which  expects  to  establish  itself  as  a  permanent  part  of  the 
life  of  a  community.  The  trained  worker  receiving  a  regular  wage 
is  at  her  post  at  regular  hours.  What  she  may  lack  in  enthusiasm  she 
makes  up  in  scientific  training  or  technical  skill.  And  the  experience 
of  all  countries  seems  to  indicate  that  there  is  likely  to  be  a  certain 
atmosphere  of  condescension  creep  in  when  volunteer  workers  are 
used,  to  which  the  English  and  American  attitude  of  mind  is  very 
hostile.  The  advice  of  the  British  ministry  of  food  is  to  use  the 
volunteer  worker  not  at  all,  except  possibly  in  small  communities. 
It  is  barely  possible  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  emphatic  rejec- 
tion of  the  communal  kitchen  in  Germany  as  a  permanent  institution, 
is  the  long  history  of  the  Volkskiichen  as  an  accepted  charity  of 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE   SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS.  59 

better-class  women.  "  In  no  sense  a  charity  "  must  be  the  motto  of 
any  communal  kitchen  which  is  to  be  a  permanent  success  in  America. 

It  is  to  be  noted  from  the  experience  of  England  and  Germany  that 
the  training  of  the  dietitian  is  not  sufficient  for  success  in  a  com- 
munal kitchen.  There  must  be  special  training  for  such  work 
over  and  above  the  general  training.  Munich,  as  long  ago  as  Novem- 
ber, 1016,  was  offering  a  special  training  for  the  public  kitchens;  and 
within  a  month  after  the  kitchens  order  was  promulgated  by  the 
British  ministry  of  food,  such  a  course  was  offered  in  London.  It 
might  be  well  for  all  departments  in  American  colleges  training 
women  in  domestic  science  to  introduce  into  their  courses  such  special 
training  for  communal  kitchen  work  as  is  available,  including  special 
experimentation  in  cooking  in  large  quantities,  together  with  studies 
of  the  food  habits  of  our  population.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
dietitian  can  not  ride  roughdiod  over  the  customs  and  traditions  of 
the  various  races  and  religions,  even  though  she  may  invoke  the 
authorit}^  of  science  in  her  support. 

And  finally,  we  still  have  almost  everything  to  learn.  We  shall 
therefore  make  mistakes.  Workers  must  especially  remember  that  in. 
fairness  to  all,  failures  must  be  reported  as  frankly  and  fully  as  suc- 
cesses. But  if  there  is  some  central  organization  through  which  the 
successes  and  mistakes  can  be  pooled,  we  shall  learn  quickly.  We 
shall  start,  as  in  the  war,  with  the  advantage  of  the  experience  of 
others  on  which  to  build.  Pure  imitation  will  not  do  the  work.  The 
initiative  peculiarly  the  faculty  of  the  American  soldier  is  present  in 
the  rest  of  the  population,  and  will  be  used  to  adapt  agencies  for 
meeting  the  food  situation  as  well  as  for  inventing  other  tools  for 
winning  the  war  and  for  meeting  the  problems  of  the  after-the-war 
period. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


When  this  survey  was  undertaken  it  was  thought  that  such  a  study 
might  make  possible  a  definite  answer  to  the  question  whether  or  not 
some  form  or  forms  of  group  or  community  cooking  could  be  recom- 
mended for  adoption  as  a  general  conservation  measure  in  the 
United  States.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  case  had  the  war  con- 
tinued, the  situation  is  now  (January,  1919)  by  no  means  sufficiently 
acute  to  expect  success  for  such  a  radical  change  of  habits  on  the  part 
of  any  large  number  of  families.  Nevertheless  it  ma}^  be  worth  while 
to  state  briefly  some  of  the  general  conclusions  to  which  a  study  of 
such  enterprises  leads. 

These  conclusions  are  based  not  only  on  the  material  included  in 
the  earlier  sections  of  this  report,  but  also  on  opinions  expressed  in 
conversation  with  persons  who  have  had  practical  experience  with 
such  work.  Many  of  these  workers  were  unwilling  to  be  quoted 
officially,  but  a  safe  generalization  from  their  personal  opinions  is 
that  in  America  there  is  at  present  nothing  encouraging  to  the  en- 
thusiast on  communal  cooking.  The  causes  for  failure  in  the  past 
they  consider  practically  the  same  as  those  for  the  failure  of  most 
cooperative  enterprises  in  this  country — unwillingness  of  Americans 
to  submit  long  to  the  restraints  which  cooperation  requires,  and  a 
lack  of  leaders  who  combine  adequate  ability  in  planning,  buying, 
cooking,  and  serving  food  with  general  administrative  ability. 

This  does  not  mean  that  local  enterprises  undertaken  to  meet  some 
special  needs  may  not  be  as  successful  as  a  considerable  number 
have  been  in  the  past.  Indeed,  it  is  possible  that  these  will  be  more 
numerous  in  the  next  few  months  and  that  a  few  may  become  perma- 
nent institutions  for  the  benefit  of  special  groups  who  for  one  reason 
or  another  find  the  preparation  of  food  in  the  home  especially  diffi- 
cult and  uneconomical. 

If  such  attempts  are  made,  it  is  very  much  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  be  reported  freely  and  with  as  much  detail  and  frankness 
regarding  failures  as  regarding  successes.  Many  pioneers  in  this 
field  have  been  too  disheartened  to  give  others  the  benefit  of  their 
experiences.  In  a  line  of  work  so  little  understood  and  so  full  of 
pitfalls,  each  w^orker  needs  to  know  Avhat  to  aVoid  as  well  as  what  to 
60 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS.  61 

do,  and  a  failure,  carefully  analj^zed  and  reported,  may  help  as  much 
in  the  end  as  a  chance  success. 

The  form  of  organization  and  financing  likely  to  prove  most  suc- 
cessful will  vary  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is 
done,  especially  the  character  of  the  group  which  is  to  be  served. 
Of  the  three  general  types — cooperative,  charitable,  and  self-sustain- 
ing with  limited  profits — the  third  seems  most  promising  because 
most  in  accord  with  American  customs  and  ideals.  Apparently  we 
shall  not  come  to  cooperation  of  the  Rochdale  type  in  this  country 
until  economic  pressure  is  much  greater  than  at  present.  While  we 
are  ready  and  eager  to  extend  charitable  aid  in  cases  of  distress,  wo 
prefer  to  consider  this  as  an  emergency  measure  and  to  try  to  remove 
the  underlying  causes  of  the  distress  rather  than  to  continue  alleviat- 
ing it  by  almsgiving.  It  seems  to  us  more  in  accordance  with  our 
democratic  tradition  to  develop  an  institution  which  paj^s  its  w^ay 
throughout,  giving  its  financial  backers  a  legitimate  but  carefully 
limited  profit  on  their  investment  and  its  patrons  whatever  advan- 
tages of  price  may  come  from  large  scale  operation,  reduction  of 
profits,  etc.  Even  with  this  type  of  organization,  we  can  not  hope 
for  lasting  success  unless  we  provide  strict  business  methods  and 
well-trained  workers.  Many  experienced  observers  believe  it  is 
equally  important  to  rule  out  such  unpaid  assistance  as  free  office 
space  and  volunteer  helpers. 

There  seems  to  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  number  of 
patrons  necessary  to  make  a  group  cooking  center  self-supporting. 
Estimates  run  from  100  to  1,000.  The  American  Cooked  Food  Service 
limits  to  500  the  number  to  be  served  from  one  station,  because  it 
can  not  retain  the  homelike  quality  of  the  food  when  catering  to  a 
larger  number. 

There  is  similar  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  method  of 
purchasing.  Some  prefer  separate  purchasing  departments,  some 
leave  the  marketing  to  the  supervisors,  some  buy  only  in  large  quan- 
tities, some  partly  m  large,  partly  in  small.  Several  kitchens  patron- 
ize local  retail  markets.  All  agree  that  the  purchaser  must  be  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  marketing  conditions  and  be  in  constant 
touch  with  the  person  responsible  for  planning  menus. 

Most  experienced  workers  do  not  believe  in  planning  menus  too 
long  ahead  because  of  the  possibility  of  unexpected  developments  in 
the  market.  All  agree  that  to  repeat  the  same  list  of  menus  week 
after  week  is  bad  policy  because  the  patrons  notice  and  dislike  the 
appearance  of  certain  dishes  on  certain  days.  A  resourceful  planner 
can  avoid  this  without  difficulty,  and  even  a  less  competent  one  can 
adopt  a  schedule  for  a  few  more  than  seven  days  and  so  lessen  the 
unpleasant  effect  on  the.  patrons. 


62  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

It  is  not  feasible  to  increase  the  number  of  portions  to  be  made 
according  to  a  given  recipe  by  simply  increasing  the  quantities  of 
the  ingredients.  Larger  quantities  may  require  different  methods  of 
manipulation  and  almost  invariably  require  differences  in  the  pro- 
portion of  flavorings  which  can  be  learned  only  by  testing. 

The  number  of  workers  required  to  a  given  number  of  patrons  has 
been  worked  out  in  several  cases.  In  a  standard  British  public  kitchen 
commencing  with  1,000  portions,  a  staff  of  six  trained  persons  is  re- 
quired ;  a  supervisor,  two  cooks,  two  kitchen  maids,  and  a  cashier.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  average  output  for  each  member  of  the  staff 
is  200  portions  until  1,200  are  reached,  and  beyond  that  number  300 
portions  for  every  additional  member  of  the  staff.  When  this 
statement  was  submitted  to  the  head  of  a  large  central  kitchen  in  this 
country  and  to  the  suj^er visor  of  another  smaller  kitchen  which 
serves  about  250  families,  they  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
English  cooks  and  general  workers  are  usually  more  carefully  trained 
and  more  accustomed  to  certain  specific  kinds  of  work  than  are 
American  workers.  Moreover,  there  is  a  carefully  worked  out  si>e- 
cial  training  now  given  to  these  workers  in  European  countries, 
which  would  need  to  be  provided  in  America  if  the  kitchens  were 
opened  in  any  great  numbers. 

The  central  kitchen  of  the  school  lunch  committee  of  the  New 
York  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor  employs 
90  persons  in  its  service  to  35  schools.  The  plan  of  the  Boston 
kitchen  calls  for  a  kitchen  superintendent  who  is  a  trained  domestic 
scientist,  two  cooks,  a  storeroom  woman,  and  three  kitchen  women. 
This  is  for  the  central  kitchen  alone,  and  does  not  include  the  service 
in  the  schools.  The  workers  in  the  American  Cooked  Food  Service 
state  that  this  question  is  still  in  process  of  standardization  with 
them.  The  labor  situation  in  the  United  States  makes  this  matter 
an  especially  difficult  one  at  present.  The  social  stigma  on  domestic 
service  of  all  kinds,  felt  more  keenly  in  America  than  in  European 
countries,  and  the  tempting  openings  in  other  industries,  make  it 
very  difficult  to  obtain  competent  help.  The  system  of  bonuses 
adopted  in  the  British  kitchens,  and  the  appeal  to  personal  interest 
in  the  success  of  the  kitchen  might  prove  stimulating  enough  to  war- 
rant a  trial  here.  In  the  semi-philanthropic  kitchens,  in  many  cases 
only  one  worker,  the  cook,  is  paid.  In  others,  one  regular  helper  is 
added.    The  cashier  and  those  who  serve  are  volunteer  workers. 

There  is  comparatively  little  information  as  to  the  exact  amounts 
of  food,  fuel,  and  labor  saved  by  group  cooking,  or  of  the  reductions 
in  cost  which  it  brings.  One  difficulty  in  such  calculations  is  of 
course  that  so  far  no  method  has  been  worked  out  for  valuing  the 
unpaid  labor  in  the  household.  An  attempt  to  do  this  in  a  coopera- 
tive canning  kitchen  run  by  the  Federal  Food  Board  in  New  York 


AGENCIES   FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  63 

City  was  significant  as  to  the  attitude  of  some  women  on  this  point. 
The  AYorkers  in  this  kitchen  inchided  women  from  the  neighboring 
tenement  district  and  the  arrangement  was  that  they  w^ere  to  be  paid 
in  fruits  and  vegetables  canned  at  the  kitchen.  The  women  refused 
to  consider  their  time  as  part  of  the  cost  of  the  product  because 
they  resented  the  idea  of  having  a  market  value  placed  on  their 
work.  It  is  true  that  the  labor  in  the  home  is  not  so  wearing  as  the 
kind  of  work  which  these  women  could  get  if  they  went  out  for  em- 
plo}  ment.  They  keep  their  own  hours,  can  rest  when  they  are  tired, 
and  do  not  work  under  supervision.  The  report  of  the  New  York 
school  lunch  committee  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  one  cause 
of  malnutrition  among  children  is  that  in  so  many  cases  the  mother 
saves  her  strength  and  money  for  the  evening  meal  when  the  father 
comes  home  and  the  children  are  left  to  forage  for  themselves  at 
noon.  A  curate  of  one  of  the  city  churches  said  that  many  of  theso 
women  do  practically  no  work  during  the  day,  but  depend  upon  the 
delicatessen  shops  on  the  block  for  the  food  for  the  family.  This 
statement,  however,  is  contradicted  by  a  well  known  social  worker 
who  has  done  an  important  work  in  the  investigation  of  conditions 
in  the  delicatessen  shops  of  the  city.  These  facts  are  stated,  not  as 
bearing  directly  on  the  subject,  but  as  showing  the  extreme  difficulty 
of  any  standardization  of  the  labor  of  woman  in  the  home,  which 
varies  so  greatly  from  family  to  family.  The  demand  for  married 
women  in  war  industries  can  hardly  be  taken  as  giving  a  wage  norm. 
But  the  permanent  after-w^ar  demand  should  give  us  valuable  and 
reliable  standards  for  the  economic  value  of  women's  work,  for  which 
we  have  always  had  need  in  order  to  answer  this  question  as  to  the 
equation  between  the  "  value  in  use  "  and  the  "  value  in  exchange  " 
of  woman's  work. 

There  are  interesting  answers  to  the  question  how  the  patrons  take 
to  the  idea  of  public  kitchens.  One  kitchen  was  well  on  its  way  to 
success  when  the  gossip  of  the  neighborhood  circulated  a  report  that 
it  was  a  "  communistic  "  experiment  which  was  aimed  at  the  home. 
Many  of  the  patrons  then  stopped  coming,  as  they  said,  on  the  advice 
of  their  spiritual  advisers.  This  seems  a  common  experience.  It 
can  be  met  by  calling  attention  to  the  scarcity  or  cost  of  food  and 
fuel,  and  by  the  necessity  of  the  conservation  of  the  nation's  health 
by  the  assurance  of  wholesome  food  at  a  reasonable  price. 

Another  kitchen  got  into  trouble  in  a  Jewish  community  by  for- 
getf  ulness  of  the  danger  of  ritual  uncleanness.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  offend  religious  and  national  prejudices  and  customs. 

There  are  complaints  reported  that  the  food  is  not  so  "  tasty  "  as 
home  food.  The  English  kitchens  are  making  a  study  of  flavorings. 
Tlien  there  is  complaint  of  lack  of  variety  and  the  absence  of  cer- 
tain dishes,  such  as  omelets.    A  common  complaint  and  one  to  which 


64  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

the  final  answer  is  not  yet  found,  is  that  the  food  is  cold  when  it 
reaches  the  home,  whether  carried  cr  delivered,  and  that  the  warm- 
ing-up process  takes  away  from  the  fine  flavor. 

The  organizers  of  many  group  and  public  kitchens  have  hoped 
that  the  meals  might  serve  as  models  of  proper  food  selection  and 
preparation  and  thus  lead  to  better  understanding  of  what  makes 
an  adequate  and  attractive  diet.  Several  have  tried  printing  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  various  dishes  on  the  bills  of  fare,  but  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  this  has  accomplished  much.  As  a  rule,  the 
demonstration  kitchens,  in  which  instruction  has  been  given  in  can- 
ning, preserving,  and  the  use  of  food  substitutes,  have  proved  a  bet- 
ter means  of  introducing  simple  instruction  in  the  principles  of 
nutrition.  Undoubtedly,  there  is  in  this  country  much  more  general 
and  intelligent  interest  in  such  questions  than  there  ever  has  been 
before.  This  together  with  the  increasing  problem  of  paid  labor 
for  women  may  furnish  the  incentive  to  a  greater  interest  in  the 
questions  with  which  this  survey  deals,  and  thus  lead  to  practical 
steps  to  eliminate,  by  some  means  or  other,  part  of  the  wastefulness 
and  inefficiency  which  now  accompany  the  preparation  of  food  in 
many  American  homes. 


Appendix  A. 

STUDY  OF  EQUIPMENT  FOR  A  CENTRAL  KITCHEN,  BY  THE 
WOMEN'S  EDUCATIONAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  UNION  OF  BOS- 
TON. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  research  department  of  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union 
has  made  a  study  of  the  equipment  of  a  central  kitchen  based  chiefly  on  facts 
gathered  at  the  kitchen  used  in  preparing  noon  luncheons  for  19  Boston  second- 
ary schools.  This  kitchen  inherited  the  fine  traditions  of  the  pioneer  effort  to 
apply  scientific  knowledge  to  large-scale  preparation  of  food,  started  under 
the  leadership  of  Mrs.  Ellen  F.  Richards  and  Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel,  in  1890. 
The  early  New  England  kitchen  began  supplying  hot  lunches  for  school  children 
in  1894,  and,  when  its  activities  were  transferred  to  the  Women's  Educational 
and  Industrial  Union  in  1907,  this  service  was  continued.  The  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  work  made  necessary  a  separate  establishment  where  all  foods 
except  bread  and  cake*  are  prepared.  The  union  has  kindly  permitted  the 
use  of  the  following  extract  from  a  study  made  by  Mrs.  M.  S.  Kirshman,  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Lucile  Eaves. 

FOKMS    OF    KITCHEN    EQUIPMENT. 

Kitchen  equipment  may  be  considered  conveniently  under  four  headings: 
First,  fixed  equipment  such  as  stove,  oven,  refrigerator,  and  sinks;  second,  mov- 
able equipment  such  as  tables,  desks,  etc. ;  third,  the  special  utensils  necessary 
for  the  particular  types  of  dishes  selected  for  the  menus ;  and  fourth,  the  gen- 
eral utensils. 

The  Boston  kitchen  has  six  pieces  of  fixed  equipment:  (1)  Hotel  gas  range 
with  hood,  (2)  a  double  deck  oven,  (3)  a  steam  cooker  with  one  soup  and  one 
vegetable  kettle,  (4)  a  refrigerator  and  stock  cooler,  (5)  a  porcelain-lined 
double  sink  for  cleaning  vegetables,  (G)  a  double  galvanized-iron  sink  for  wash- 
ing pots  and  kettles. 

The  most  expensive  and  generally  needed  articles  of  the  fixed  equipment  are 
the  stove,  the  refrigerator  and  the  sink.  A  gas  stove  is  convenient  and  its  use 
will  be  economical  in  many  communities.  The  Boston  kitchen  uses  an  eight- 
burner  stove  with  two  ovens  below,  and  has  also  a  separate  double-deck  oven. 
When  the  menu  is  planned  so  that  the  burner  and  oven  space  are  effectively 
utilized,  a  four-burner  gas  stove  is  sufficient  for  serving  500  to  800  persons. 
The  separate  double-deck  oven  is  not  necessary  even  in  large  schools.  The  gas 
stoves  with  heavily  insulated  walls  and  fireless  cooker  attachments  are  desir- 
able but  their  initial  cost  is  heavy.     If  carefully  used,  however,  these  stoves 

1  The  baking  for  the  lunch  rooms  maintained  by  the  union  and  for  the  school  lunches  Is 
done  in  a  bakery  located  at  the  New  England  kitchen.  A  brick  oven  and  power  mixera 
are  used. 

65 


66         AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

reduce  the  gas  bill  over  one-half,  which  is  well  worth  considering.  If  gas  is 
not  available,  a  kerosene  stove  probably  will  answer  the  purpose  even  better 
than  a  wood  or  coal  stove,  as  its  initial  cost  is  low,  and  It  is  economical  to 
operate  from  the  standpoint  of  both  fuel  and  labor. 

Electric  stoves  and  appliances  are  coming  into  greater  favor.  Electricity  has 
nearly  all  the  advantages  of  gas,  is  cleaner,  requires  less  labor  to  run  and  does 
not  consume  the  oxygen  as  does  the  gas  or  the  coal  stove.  The  even  heat  lessens 
the  labor  of  watching  the  foods,  prevents  loss  from  burning,  and  makes  pos- 
sible uniform  standards  of  production.  Power  rates  must  be  obtained  to  make 
the  use  of  electric  cooking  and  serving  appliances  economical,  but  many  cities 
and  towns,  including  even  the  smaller  one.s,  are  willing  to  give  such  rates  in 
order  to  use  surplus  electric  power  during  the  daj\  Waste  in  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity is  due  to  the  time  which  it  takes  to  reach  the  cooking  temperature.  This 
is  especially  noticeable  when  boiling  water.  Some  companies  are  meeting  this 
difficulty  by  combining  the  gas  and  electric  stoves  so  that  electricity  is  used 
only  where  long  cooking  is  desired.  Fireless  cooking  principles  may  be  applied 
and  the  electricity  turned  off  when  the  desired  temperature  is  reached.  The 
length  of  time  required  to  obtain  tliis  temperature  and  the  petiod  which  it  can 
be  maintained  without  power,  should  be  carefully  tested  before  purcliasing  any 
stove  which  must  be  used  with  carefully  conserved  heat. 

The  Schenley  High  School  in  Pittsburgh,  which  has  its  own  bakery,  has  an 
electric  oven,  electric  dough  mixer,  and  an  electric  proving  box.  It  also  has  a 
gas  oven.  Kecently,  a  number  of  commercial  cafeterias  have  placed  electric 
stoves  and  ovens  In  their  kitchens.  High  praise  is  always  given  by  those  who 
use  the  electric  ovens  to  the  standard  of  the  products  obtained. 

The  steam  cookers  are  practical,  where  it  is  possible  to  connect  with  an 
outside  steam  system  or  where  the  school  lunch  department  must  supply  its 
own  hot  water.  Formerly  from  20  to  25  pounds  of  pressure  was  considered 
necessary;  it  is  now  known  that  from  15  to  20  pounds  of  pressure  with  longer 
cooking  gives  better  results.  All  vegetables  are  better  in  texture  when  cooked  by 
steam ;  the  mineral  matter  is  also  conserved.  Steam  heat  is  excellent  for  the 
making  of  soups  and  of  white  sauce. 

KEFRIGERATORS. 

Refrigerators  ai^e  for  three  purposes :  First,  to  cool  the  materials  which  are 
to  be  served ;  second,  to  keep  the  dishes  which  are  prepared  on  one  day  for 
use  on  the  next ;  and  third,  to  care  for  leftovers.  The  first  is  important  since 
nearly  all  foods  are  served  either  cold  or  hot ;  the  second  is  not  necessary  unless 
one  kitchen  is  serving  several  schools;  the  third  is  of  minor  consideration  since 
with  the  careful  estimation  of  the  requirements,  the  leftovers  should  be  negli- 
gible. A  refrigerator  should  have  such  insulation  as  will  maintain  a  tempera- 
ture between  40  and  50°  F.  There  should  be  complete  circulation  of  air  from 
the  ice  chest  through  the  other  compartments  and  back  over  the  ice.  There 
should  be  perfect  drainage  and  the  lining  should  be  seamless  so  that  every 
part  may  be  cleaned  easily.  There  is  economy  in  the  consumption  of  ice  if 
the  refrigerator  is  small  enough  so  that  the  ice  chest  may  be  kept  full  all  of 
the  time.  AVith  the  ice  compartment  in  the  upper  part  of  the  refrigerator,  it  is 
possible  to  drain  the  water  from  the  side  into  a  container  where  foods  may  be 
cooled  easily  and  quickly  before  placing  them  in  the  ice  chest. 

An  outside  door  to  the  Ice  compartment  is  sometimes  convenient  for  filling, 
and  ice  may  be  saved  during  the  cold  months  by  opening  this  door.  On 
the  other  hand,  tliis  arrangement  is  less  important  than  having  the  refrigerator 
Bear  the  place  where  it  is  needed.    In  one  kitchen  visited  the  refrigerator  was 


AGEN-CIES  FOn  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  67 

over  twenty  feet  from  the  stove  and  the  work  table.  The  insulation  which 
does  not  let  out  the  cold  should  not  let  in  the  heat,  so  that,  if  necessary,  a 
well-insulated  refrigerator  may  stand  near  the  stove. 

An  artificial  ice  plant  may  be  economical  if  it  can  be  connected  with  the 
powder  which  is  used  for  some  other  purpose.  The  Schenley  High  school  in 
Pittsburgh  has  this  system.  At  the  Boston  kitchen,  ice  is  used.  The  refrig- 
erator and  stock  cooler  are  built  on  the  west  side  of  the  kitchen.  When  many 
hot  dishes  are  made  on  one  day  to  be  held  over  for  delivery  on  the  following 
morning,  a  large  refrigerator  is  necessary. 

SINK. 

There  are  five  requisites  for  a  good  sink:  It  should  be  durable,  and  of  a 
material  easily  cleaned;  it  should  drain  well;  the  plumbing  should  be  open; 
and  it  should  be  of  such  a  height  that  the  worker  will  not  need  to  stoop.  Porce- 
lain is  the  best  generally  used  material.  An  enamel  iron  sink  may  crack. 
Other  materials  used  are  galvanized  iron,  wrought  iron,  zinc,  slate,  soapstone, 
and  a  composition  such  as  "  Albarene."  A  commercial  sink  with  open  plumbing 
is  far  better  than  a  zinc  or  slate  sink  set  in  a  wooden  frame,  as  the  cracks 
in  the  latter  make  them  hard  to  clean.  Soapstone  sinks  often  drain  poorly, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  galvanized-iron  sinks,  although  they  stand  harder 
general  wear  than  porcelain  or  enamel. 

Drain  boards  can  be  placed  on  both  sides.  If  only  one  drain  board  is  used, 
it  should  be  at  the  left.  A  drain  board  made  of  wood  with  a  zinc  covering 
wears  well,  but  the  drain  boards  made  as  a  part  of  the  sink  are  more  easily 
cleaned.  If  no  drainboard  is  used,  a  zinc-covered  table  at  the  side  will  prove 
satisfactory.  Double  wash  tubs  are  very  useful  for  the  school  lunch  kitchen ; 
the  dishes  may  be  washed  in  one  compartment  using  a  rubber  stopper  over 
the  drain  while  the  other  compartment  is  used  for  rinsing.  The  second  com- 
partment may  also  be  used  for  cleaning  vegetables.  In  the  Boston  kitchen,  ifc 
is  found  necessary  to  have  a  second  double  sink  which  is  used  only  for  the 
cleaning  of  vegetables. 

Sink  attachments  of  metal  plate  are  goo<l.  The  faucets  should  allow  a  con- 
tinuous flow  of  water,  as  those  which  must  be  held  while  the  water  flows  are 
consumers  of  time  and  energy  and  do  not  permit  the  flushing  of  drains.  High 
faucets  are  more  convenient.  If  low,  they  should  be  capped  with  rubber  to 
prevent  the  breakage  of  dishes. 

The  real  use  of  a  trap  is  to  make  a  seal  which  will  not  allow  foul  gases  to 
reach  the  room.    This  water  seal  should  be  perfect  whatever  the  type  chosen. 

LABOK-SAVING  MACHINERY. 

All  equipment  is  selected  with  the  idea  of  saving  labor,  but  there  are  certain 
machines  which  are  known  especially  as  "labor-saving  devices."  The  Boston 
kitchen  has  only  four  machines,  aside  from  the  steam  cookers,  which  can  be 
classed  strictly  as  labor  saving.  They  are  (1)  a  meat  slicer,^  (2)  a  meat 
chopper  and  motor,  (3)  an  egg  beater  and  motor  with  2  containers  of  32  quarts 
each,  and  (4)  a  potato  masher.  No  data  are  available  showing  the  amount 
of  labor  which  can  be  saved  by  these  means.  A  year  ago  one  school  visited 
put  into  the  kitchen  and  serving  room  $1,000  worth  of  labor-saving  machinery 
which  included  a  steam  cooker,  a  dishwasher  and  a  steam  table.  The  superin- 
tendent of  the  lunch  room  claimed  that  the  number  served  had  doubled  while 
at  the  same  time  two  less  workers  were  employed.  Time  and  labor  will  be 
saved  by  installing  first  the  labor-saving  machines  which  are  used  frequently. 

iThe  bread  slicer  is  listed  under  "packing-room  equipment."  Slicera  may  be  bought 
which  will  serve  for  both  bread  and  meat. 


68  AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

Those  used  less  may  be  added  if  the  funds  and  space  allow.  No  new  device 
should  be  purchased  unless  it  is  first  thoroughly  tested,  as  the  keeping  of  such 
utensils  in  order  sometimes  requires  labor  out  of  proportion  to  the  tasks  which 
they  perform. 

Movable  equipment  in  the  Boston  Idtclien. 
Description.  Price. 

1  truck    (3    shelves) $27.50 

2  tables,  zinc  covered,  2  feet  2  inches  by  1  foot  3  inches,  height  19  inches.     12.  00 

4  tables,  zinc  covered,  3  feet  by  2  feet,  height  29  inches *  14.  40 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  3  feet  6  inches  by  2  feet,  height  29  inches *4.  90 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  3  feet  6  inches  by  2  feet,  height  29  inches ^  7.  50 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  6  feet  by  2  feet  G  inches,  height  30  inches  (shelf 

below ) 8.  20 

2  tables,  zinc  covered,  5  feet  4  inches  by  2  feet  9  inches  and  7  feet  by 

2  feet  8  inches  (with  elevated  shelves  and  on  horses) ^11.60 

1  desk '  7.  80 

15  wooden  chairs  with  backs— 15.  00 

1  4-foot  stepladder 1.  20 

1  stool,  low,  for  cook  to  stand  on 2.  50 

1  rack  for  time  cards 5.  00 

1  platform   scales 14.  50 

1  storeroom   scales *4.  50 

1  clock 2.  70 

1  electric    fan 12.  50 

12  14-inch  japanned  trays  for  employees'  lunches 2.  70 

6  garbage  barrels  and  covers 21.  00 

2  coal  hods 1.30 

4  Dish-towel  racks 2.  40 

3  paper  towel   racks 3.  00 

2  brooms ^^__  .  90 

2  dustbrushes 1.  50 

2  dustpans--- .  50 

1  patent  mop  Mringer , 2.00 

2  mop  heads  and  handles .  70 

6  scrub  brushes 1.20 

4  scrub    pails - 1.  00 

6  floor  cloths .  38 

1  fire  extinguisher 6.  50 

1  fire  blanket 1. 19 

3  pails  filled  with  sand .  75 

\  AVORK   T-\BLES   AND   TRUCKS. 

Work  tables  are  either  fixed  or  movable.  Fixed  tables  have  several  disad- 
vantages ;  they  are  more  expensive  than  is  necessary  for  a  school  lunch  kitchen 
and  are  generally  fitted  with  drawers  which  are  hard  to  clean.  If  a  fixed  table 
is  used,  vitrified  tiling  makes  a  good  but  expensive  top;  composition  tops  are 
likely  to  crack.  But  a  w^ork  table  does  not  have  to  be  expensive  in  order  to 
stand  hard  wear;  well  scrubbed,  thick,  hard-wood  table  tops  are  common  in 
the  best  equipped  hotel  kitchens.  Oilcloth  covering  is  not  durable,  and  soon 
becomes  unsanitary.  Movable  tables  Lave  a  distinct  advantage  because  they 
can  be  placed  where  needed  and  the  floor  around  them  can  be  cleaned  easily. 

1  Articles  bought  previous  to  July,  1914,  cost  estimated. 
*  Usecl  to  hold  the  potato  masher  and  motor. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS.  69 

Steel  tables,  \Yhich  are  often  found  in  hospitals,  are  excellent  if  rubber  mats 
are  used  to  prevent  breakage.  Extra  table  tops  which  are  put  onto  horses 
and  fastened  to  the  wall  so  that  they  can  be  let  down  are  useful.  There  is  an 
advantage  in  locating  tables  near  the  wall  becuse  utensils  and  supplies  can 
be  kept  conveniently  on  shelves  fastened  to  the  wall.  If  this  is  not  possible, 
shelves  may  be  built  across  the  top  of  the  table,  placing  them  at  the  center  or 
back  of  the  table,,  or  making  them  so  that  they  will  slide  from  one  side  to 
the  other.    A  pastry  table  fitted  with  zinc-lined  flour  bins  is  also  good. 

Two  of  the  tables  listed  in  the  Boston  equipment  are  only  19  inches  high — 
just  high  enough  to  hold  the  utensils  into  which  the  soup  is  strained.  When 
the  kettles  are  too  high,  the  cook  stands  upon  a  stool.  The  low  tables  are 
also  of  the  right  height  to  hold  the  heavy  mixing  pans.  Such  tables  should 
have  castors,  as  it  was  noticeable  that  the  tables  with  castors  stood  firmly 
even  under  the  heavy  work  of  mixing.  If  the  stove  and  work  tables  are  of  the 
same  height,  it  is  possible  when  the  tables  are  on  castors  to  slide  the  heaviest 
utensils  from  the  stove  to  the  tables  and  to  move  them  wherever  desired,  thus 
saving,  much  lifting. 

The  truck  of  galvanized  iron  with  removable  shelves,  also  of  galvanized  iron, 
is  used  to  carry  hot  dishes,  or  to  hold  them  while  cooling,  before  placing  them 
in  the  refrigerators;  also  to  take  food  to  the  packing  room.  The  top  shelf 
of  the  truck  should  be  of  the  same  height  as  the  stove  and  tables.  Four- 
wheeled  trucks  which  are  easily  turned  are  excellent  for  carrying  food  and 
utensils. 

HEIGHT    OF    EQUIPMENT. 

Since  stooping  and  reaching  take  extra  energy,  tables,  sinks,  and  stoves 
should  be  sufficiently  high  so  that  the  worker  can  stand  erect,  or  else  a  con- 
venient height  for  sitting  at  the  table.  Shelves  should  not  be  too  high  or  too 
low,  but  adapted  to  the  average  worker.  The  average  work  table  on  the  mar- 
ket is  about  28  inches  high ;  while  for  the  average  worker,  it  should  be  at  least 
32  inches.  The  same  question  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
height  of  the  stove  and  of  the  working  base  of  the  sink  which  is  nearly  always 
set  too  low. 

Special  equipment  in  ilie  Boston  Jdtchcn. 
Description.  Price. 

2  40-quart  gray  enamel  dish  pans  for  mixing $6.  00 

3  17-quart  gray  enamel  dish  pans  for  mixing 6.  00 

4  tin  bowls  for  whipping 5.  00 

2  15-inch  iron  frying  pans 1.  50 

8  6-quart  agate  saucepans  and  covers  for  vegetables 2.  70 

6  18-quart  enamel  double  boilers  for  white  sauce 30.  00 

2  50-quart  copper  stock  pots  for  soup 28.  00 

2  racks  .for  copper  stock  pots 3.00 

6  40-quart  cast  aluminum  stock  pots  for  soup ^     79.  20 

12  12-quart  block  tin  milk  cans  for  soup  (covers  harnessed  on) *  15.  00 

8  10-quart  block  tin  milk  cans  for  soup  (covers  harnessed  on) *9.  60 

12  6-quart  block  tin  milk  cans  for  soup  (covers  harnessed  on) ^8.00 

8  3-quart  block  tin  milk  cans  for  soup  (covers  harnessed  on) M.  40 

14  6-gallon  galvanized  iron  cans  for  soaking  beans 36.  40 

1  15-foot  hose  for  carrying  water  to  beans 1.  50 

1  heavy  iron  baker's  peel  for  taking  beans  from  oven 1.  00 

36  8-quart  stone  bean  pots . 10.  50 

48  12-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials *  14.  00 

36  10-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials ^  9.  60 

24  8-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials ^  6.  00 


70  AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF   COOKED  FOODS. 

Description.  Price. 

18  6-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials *  $4. 13 

18  4-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials *  3.  75 

12  2-quart  round  heavy  block  tin  pans  for  hot  specials *  1. 10 

12  iron  baking  pans  for  holding  custards  in  the  oven 12.  00 

24  block  tin  counter  pans  for  holding  custard  cups  while  cooling 6.  00 

48  dozen  white  enamel  custard  cups 52.  SO 

12  aluminum  pudding  pans  for  jellies ^7.80 

12  12-Quart  agate  pudding  pans  for  jellies ^  3.  00 

6  10-quart  agate  pudding  pans  for  jellies *  2.  52 

6  2-quart  agate  pudding  pans  for  jellies *  1.  50 

6  1-quart  agate  pudding  pans  for  jellies . *  1. 15 

2  6-quart  enamel  pails  with  covers 2.  80 

2  strainers  to  fit  40-quart  aluminum  stock  pots 1.  20 

2  round  block  tin  hotel  colanders  (1  fine  mesh  for  rice,  1  coai'se  mesh 

for  macaroni) 9,  00 

6  16-quart  fiber  pails  for  storage  of  salt,  sugar,  etc 1.  50 

12  1-quart  "  Lightning  "  jars  for  storage '       .  90 

12  1-pint  "  Lightning  "  jars  for  storage .  73 

With  the  above  equipment  the  following  kinds  and  amounts  of  foods  are  pre- 
pared daily,  one  variety  of  each  kind  being  served  each  day. 


Kinds. 


Full 

capacity. 

Qnarix. 

Quarts. 

120 

300 

l(i7 

250 

60 

10) 

25 

75 

15 

75 

25 

.50 

2  125 

2  25Q 

Soup 

Hot  specinl. 

Jeilv 

Pudding... 

Sauce 

salad 

Custard 


I  Articles  also  sent  to  schools;  three  sets  of  these  articles  are  kept— one  is  in  use,  one  en  route,  and  one  at 
the  schools. 
*  Individual  cups. 

MATERIALS  TOR   UTENSILS   IN    SPECIAL  EQUIPMENT. 

Four  facts  should  be  considered  in  the  choosing  of  general  utensils:  First, 
the  chemical  reaction  of  the  foodstuffs  upon  the  material ;  second,  weight ; 
third,  durability ;  fourth,  ease  of  cleaning.  The  fact  that  foods  vary  in  the 
amount  of  acid  or  alkali  present  means  that  different  materials  may  be  se- 
lected for  different  purposes.  While  the  initial  cost  of  enamel  ware  or  tin 
plate  is  le.ss,  they  are  not  so  dura])le  as  aluminum.  Durability,  in  the  long 
run,  affects  the  price;  while  ease  of  cleaning  affects  the  cost  of  labor.  The 
weight  of  utensils  is  important  since  the  energy  utilized  varies  directly  with 
the  weight.  Aluminum  probably  answers  all  four  of  the  above  tests  best.  The 
physiological  effect  of  slight  amounts  of  aluminum  which  may  be  absorbed  with 
food  is  still  a  disputed* question,  but  probably  there  is  no  greater  danger  to  health 
from  It  than  from  the  enamel  chippings  which  invariably  come  with  the  most 
careful  use  of  the  best  enamel  ware.  Cast  aluminum  certainly  is  generally 
considered  best  for  the  larger  utensils.  It  is  noted  that  enamel  dish  pans  are 
used  in  place  of  mixing  bowls,  as  they  are  found  better  in  the  large  sizes  useil. 
When  not  in  use  these  pans  may  be  hung  on  nails  on  the  walls.  In  replacing 
the  round  pans  made  of  block  tin,  used  for  hot  specials,  and  of  agateware  used 
for  the  pudding  pans,  it  is  the  intention  to  substitute  aluminum. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  71 

Qenei'al  utensils  used  in  the  Boston  kitchen. 

Description.  Price. 

3  hand    strainers $1.20 

1  flour  sifter .  20 

2  20-inch  handles  cast-iron  tinned  skimmers .GO 

4  1-gallon  tin  measures 3.00 

2  1-qnart  tin  measures .  40 

6  1-cup  tin  measures .  ?)••) 

1  1-peck  wooden  meas\n*e .  33 

6  G-quart  enamel  pitchers; 5.  40 

3  3-quart  enamel  pitchers 2. 25 

1  nickel    teakettle 2.m 

4  meat  boards,  18  by  12  inches 2.  00 

1  chopping    tray L  10 

2  wooden  potato  mashers   (hotel  size) .80 

3  wooden  butter  paddles  for  patting  hot  dishes  into  ^ns .60 

1  hand  potato  ricer ,23 

1  rolling    pin .20 

3  tin  scoops 1.20 

1  glass  lemon  squeezer .  08 

2  egg  beaters .40 

3  heavy-wire  French  whips 1.  G5 

3  medium-wire  French  whips 2.  70 

6  1-quart  long-handled  dipi)ers  for  soup 1.  20 

8  carving   knives 8.  00 

3  chopping    knives 1.  05 

12  vegetable  knives .90 

2  IS-inch  handle  iron  forks  for  lifting  meats .  80 

6  long-handled  iron  spoons .  30 

6  short-handled  iron  spoons .30 

12  tin    tablespoons ,  .25 

24  tin  teaspoons .  25 

1  ice  pick .20 

1  gas   lighter .  25 

The  Boston  kitchen  is  not  necessarily  a  standard  for  other  kitchens  in  the 
materials  .selected.  It  is,  however,  a  fine  example  of  a  reasomibly  inexpensive 
outfit  capable  of  turning  out  a  large  amount  of  well-cooked  food.  Tlje  total 
expenditure  for  partitions,  plumbing,  lighting,  and  all  other  equipment  was 
only  $3,000;  ovei'  one-tliird  of  which  wa,s  used  for  tlie  fir.st  three  items. 

NUMBER   AND    DUTIES   OF   THE    KITCHEN    EMPLOYEES    IN    THE    BOSTON    KITCHEN. 

Kitehen  superintendent. — The  kitchen  superintendent,  wlio  is  in  direct  charge 
of  the  kitchen,  is  a  trained  domestic  scientist.  Tlie  day's  orders  for  dishes  are 
sent  to  her  by  one  of  the  clerks ;  she  returns  to  the  clerk  a  requisition  for  the 
food  materials  required.  The  superintendent  then  posts  the  recipes  in  the 
exact  amounts  required  where  they  are  available  to  tlie  kitchen  force.  She  is 
responsible  for  all  of  the  recipes  used  and  Is  constantly  experimenting  with 
them  to  increase  the  nutritive  value  of  the  food,  decrease  its  cost,  and  to  improve 
its  flavor  and  appearance.  Her  desk  is  so  located  that  she  can  supervise  every 
part  of  the  kitchen,  and  she  gives  such  assistance  with  all  parts  of  the  work 
as  is  necessary  to  insure  every  detail  being  carried  on  efficiently.  The  kitchen 
superintendent  also  has  charge  of  the  entire  building  and  is  responsible  for  the 
kitchen  and  packing-room  employees  as  well  as  for  the  janitor. 


72         AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 

Head  cook. — The  head  cook  begins  at  7  in  the  morning'  to  place  the  food 
cooked  the  day  before  where  it  can  be  quickly  sent  to  the  packing  room.  Her 
one  duty  during  the  day  is  the  preparation  of  the  hot  specials. 

Assistant  cook. — The  assistant  cook  arrives  at  6  in  the  morning  in  order  to 
prepare  the  employees'  breakfasts.  During  spare  moments  of  the  early  morn- 
ing hours  she  may  assist  in  frosting  the  cakes.  The  assistant  cook  is  responsi- 
ble for  custards,  sandwich  mixture,  and  the  employees'  breakfasts  and  lunches. 

Storeroom  woman. — The  storeroom  woman  arrives  at  5  in  the  morning  in 
order  to  take  materials  from  the  storeroom,  and  make  the  soups  which  are 
prepared  just  before  they  are  sent  out.  She  attends  to  the  frosting  of  the  cakes, 
work  which  is  also  done  in  the  morning  the  goods  are  sent.  Every  Tuesday 
and  Wednesday  she  has  full  charge  of  cooking  the  beans. 

Kitchen  women. — There  are  three  kitchen  women  who  are  employed  in  slic- 
ing meats,  peeling  vegetables,  looking  over  beans,  and  washing  dishes.  One 
of  these  women  arrives  at  5  in  the  morning  and  cuts  all  of  the  bread  used  in 
the  packing  room;  another  comes  at  6  and  works  one-half  of  her  time  each 
day  in  the  packing  room. 

Equipment  for  packing  room. 

1.  General  equipment. 

A.  Stationary : 

1  cabinet  for  left-over  breads,  galvanized  iron,  4  feet  4  inches  by  2 

feet  3  inches,  height  5  feet  20  inches $130.00 

1  cabinet  for  storing  packing  supplies 20.  00 

B.  Labor  saving  machinery: 

1  bread  cutting  machine  and  motor 62. 00 

C.  Movable  equipment : 

3  tables,  zinc  covered  elevated  shelves    (shelf  for  paper  below) 
4  feet  8  inches  by  5  feet,  for  making  sandwiches  and  packing 

cakes   and   sandwiches 65. 00 

1  table,  zinc  covered  (on  horses,  elevated  shelves)  7  by  2  feet  for 

packing  hot  specials,  salads  and  custards 11.  67 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  8  by  2  feet  for  bread  cutting  machine 9.  00 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  5  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  for  bread  cutting 5.  25 

1  table,  zinc  covered,  3  feet  6  inches  by  2  feet  G  inches  for  bread 

cutting 4.  90 

1  table,  3  by  2  feet  for  general  use 2.  00 

1  rack,  wooden  for  cake 23.00 

1  rack  for  labels 5.00 

1  desk   9.  60 

1  desk    chair 1.  50 

9  chairs  used  for  emploj-ees'  meals 14.  50 

1  clock 2.  70 

1  paper   towel  holder 

1  paper  towel  basket 

1  wastebaskct,    metal ' 1.  50 

2  brooms .90 

1  dustpan  and  floor  brush .75 

1  dustpan  and  brush  for  table .75 

2  brushes  for  scrubbing .  40 

1  Massachusetts  laws  allow  women  to  work  54  hours  a  week.  These  women  work  48 
hours,  though  the  hours  each  day  vary  from  9  on  the  first  4  days  of  the  week  to  5  on 
Friday  and  7  on  Saturday. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS.  73 

C.  Movable  equipment — Continued. 

3  pails,  fiber $0.  75 

4  floor  cloths .  25 

2  pails  with  sand  for  fire : .  50 

1  fire  extinguisher . 6.  50 

8  food   charts   for  windows 8.  00 

4  frames  for  food  charts 47.  00 

2.  Special  equipment. 

A.  Packing  equipment  for  transportation: 

1  food  carrier  for  use  on  motor  truck '. 18.  50 

6  6-bushel  wooden  baskets  with  covers  and  partitions 36.00 

3  5-bushel  wooden  baskets  with  covers  and  partitions 15.  00 

24  2-bushel  wooden  market  baskets,  bail  handles 18.00 

12  2-bushel  wooden  baskets  without  handles 27.  00 

24  custard  boxes,  galvanized  iron,  16  by  16  by  3i  inches 30.  00 

24  custard  boxes,  galvanized  iron,  16  by  7  by  3^  inches 20.  00 

24  custard  boxes,  galvanized  iron,  9  by  6  by  3  inches 20.  00 

6  refrigerator  pans  for  holding  ice  cream  tubs 3.  30 

2  ^-size  barrels,  galvanized  iron,  for  waste  paper 5.  20 

4  twine  holders  for  each  end  of  packing  tables 1.  00 

B.  Packing  supplies  (six  months'  supply)  : 

1,000  paper  bags.  No.  8  "  Torpedo  "  for  groceries 5. 10 

1,000  1-quart  paper  food  boxes,  "  Purity,"  for  jams,  catsup  and 

mayonnaise 13.  50 

2,000  1-pint  paper  food  boxes  "  Purity  "  for  jams,  catsups,   and 

mayonnaise 17.  50 

2,000  1-quart  paper  pails,  "  Waxline  "  for  salads  and  whip  cream 10.  00 

2,000  1-pint  paper  pails,  "  Waxline  "  for  salads  and  whip  cream 8.  00 

10,000  9-iuch  paper  pie  plates  for  pies  and  cakes 13.00 

24  reams  paraffin  paper 8.  40 

48  bundles  wrapping  paper 204.  95 

1,000  paper  tags .  79 

8,000  paper  bags  at  sc-hools  for  individual  service  of  cake  and  candy  6.  91 

2,000  paper  bags  for  selling  returned  food 5.  76 

3.  Utensils: 

8  cake  knives 7.  20 

36  tin  forks .  88 

4  iron  long-handled  spoons .  20 

6  iron  short-handled  spoons .  30 

24  teaspoons .  25 

The  packing  room  superintendent  has  charge  of  the  packing  of  the  baskets 
which  are  sent  to  each  school.  She  checks  the  orders  from  each  school  with  the 
food  which  goes  out ;  later,  these  sheets  are  again  checked  with  the  sheets  show- 
ing the  food  received  at  each  school.  Much  of  the  time  of  the  packing  room 
superintendent  is  spent  in  visiting  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  assistant 
director. 

Nine  women,  in  addition  to  superintendent,  work  from  5  to  8.45  in  the  morn- 
ing in  the  packing  room  and  then  go  to  the  schools.  These  women  work  48 
hours  each  week.  Other  assistance  is  given  by  the  janitor  and  also  by  the 
kitchen  woman  who  comes  at  6  and  cuts  the  bread.  Afiother  of  the  kitchen 
helpers  spends  one-half  of  the  day  in  the  packing  room  assisting  the  janitor  in 
the  cleaning. 


Appendix  B. 

SCHEDULES  OF  EQUIPMENT  USED  BY  THE  NEW  YORK  SCHOOL 
LUNCH  COMMITTEE.  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  CON- 
DITION OF  THE  POOR. 

The  f(»llo\ving  lists  were  prepared  by  Miss  Elizabeth  M.  Fee,  supervisor: 
MOVABLE  EQUIPMENT  FOR  A  KITCHEN  FEEDING  500. 


AGATEWARE. 

4  pudding  or  cake  pans  to  fit  ovens. 
2    ladles    for    soup    or    stew    (20-inch 

handles). 
2  ladles  for  cocoa  or  sauces. 
2  double  boilers   (largest  size). 
1  8-quart  boiler. 
8  5-quart  pans. 

1  10-quart  sauce  kettle. 

2  5-quart  saucepans. 

CUTLERY. 

1  carving  knife. 

1  butcher  knife. 
4  case  knives. 

2  paring  knives. 

2  long-handled  forks  (20  inches). 

2  small  forks. 

3  tablesi)oons. 

6  long-handled  iron  spoons  (18  inches). 

1  can  opener. 

EARTHENWARE. 

2  4-quart  jars  (for  salad  dressing). 
25  custartl  cups. 

TIN  AND  WIRE   WARE. 

1  apple   corer. 
6  cup  cake  pans. 

1  colander. 

2  dish  pans. 

1  flat  wire  whip  (whip). 
1  round  wire  whip  (beater). 
1  dusti^Jin. 
74 


TIN  AND  wiitE  WARE — continued. 

1  grater  for  lemons. 

]2  layer  cake  pans. 

8  loaf  cake  pans  (bread  tins). 

1  long-handled  ladle  (20  inches). 

1  long-handleil  skimmer. 

1  fine  wire  strainer  (quart  size). 

1  flour  sifter. 

1  20-quart  soup  kettle. 

WOODEN  WARE. 

1  brea»l  cutter. 

1  broom. 

1  whisk  broom. 

1  niopstick. 

1  scrub  brush. 

1  vegetable  brush. 

1  washboard. 

1  wooden  spoon. 

2  pulp  pails. 
1  rolling-pin. 
Platform  s^pales. 
Small  scales. 
Hatchet. 

1  fry  kettle  and  basket. 

TABLEWARE    FOR    500. 

Gla.sses. 

Sauce  and  vegetable  dishes. 

Plates  (medium). 

Small  plates. 

Bowls. 

OoftVi'  cups. 

Trays. 


AGENCIES  FOR  THE  SALE   OF  COOKED  FOODS. 


75 


TABLEAVAKK  FOR  500 — COUtiUUed. 

Salts. 
I*opiiers. 
Butter  bowl. 
I'itcliers  for  milk. 
Viiiopar  bottle. 
Mustard  bottle. 
Table  silver. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


scrub  cloth. 

dozen  dish  towels. 

oven  cloths. 

dishcloths  (for  washing  dishes), 
G  tablecloths. 
1  20-quart  soup  kettle. 
1  quart  measuring  cup. 

EQUIPMENT  OF  A  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOL  FEEDING  500 


MISCELLANEOUS — contiuucd 

2  ^-pint  measuring  cups. 
1  soap  shaker. 

1  soap  dish. 

2  wire  dish  drainers. 

1  glass  lemon  squeezer. 
1  meat  grinder. 

1  garbage  can  and  cover. 
4  crisco  cans. 

8  gallon  cans  and  covers  for  beans,  etc. 

4  l-quart  containers. 

4  4-quart  containers. 

6  galvanized  covers  for  barrels;  2  18 
inches  diameter,  4  20  inches  diam- 
eter. 

4  bread  baskets. 

2  40-quart  milk  cans. 


MOVABLE    EQUIPMENT. 

500  trays. 

.500  tablespoons. 

500  teaspoons. 

500  knives. 

500  forks. 

5(M)  saucers,  5*  inches  diameter. 

500  soup  bowls. 

500  bread  and  butter  plates,  6i  inches 

diameter. 
500  meat  plates. 
8  canisters,  small. 

7  ladles. 

1  skimmer. 

2  colanders,  large  and  small. 

8  wooden  spoons. 

1  Chinese  strainer,  7  inches  diameter. 

2  meat  forks. 

G  cooking  spoons. 
1  broom. 
1  dustpan. 
1  washboard. 
1  rolling  pin. 
4  wire  egg  beaters. 
8   agate   pudding  pans,   10   inches   di- 
ameter. 

3  agate   roasting  pans,  12   inches  di- 
ameter. 

1  agate  pot,  2  gallons. 

1  agate  pot,  1  gallon. 

2  frying  pans,  13  inches  diameter. 
2  frying  pans,  9*  inches  diameter. 

2  white  enamel  dishpans,  15  inches  di- 
ameter. 


MOVABLE  EQUIPMENT — Continued. 

1  white  enamel  pot,  2  gallons. 

1  agate  pot,  5  gallons. 

1  agate  stock  boiler,  8  gallons. 

1  wooden  army  pail. 

1  meat  chopper.  ^ 

1  scale,  small. 

2  steel  stock  pots. 

1  French  frying  pan,  large. 

2  garbage  cans. 

1  grater. 

2  bread  pans,  Gi  by  Si  inches* 
1  potato  masher,  wire. 

1  potato  pounder,  large. 

1  mixing  bowl. 

2  paring  knives,  Gi  inches. 

4J    dozen    salt    and    pepper    shakers 

(glasses,  cups,  salt,  and  peppers). 
1  bread-cutting  machine. 

PEUMANENT     EQUIPMENT. 

Meat  block. 

-Scale,   Fairbanks'   standard. 
Ice  chest. 
Urns,  milk. 
Urns,  coffee. 
Urns,  chocolate. 
Urns,  hot  water. 
Steam  table. 
Dish-washing  machine. 
Copper  stock  pot,  40  gallons. 
Steel  sink. 
Garland  range,  2  sections. 


Appendix  C. 

SCHEDULE  OF  STANDARDIZED  COOKING  APPLIANCES,  TAKEN 
FROM  HANDBOOK  OF  NATIONAL  KITCHENS  AND  RESTAU- 
RANTS, ISSUED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  KITCHENS  DIVISION, 
[BRITISH]  MINISTRY  OF  FOOD,  JULY,  1918. 


Description  of  cooking  appliance  recommended. 

Duty  performed. 

Number  of  appli- 
ances required  for 
cooking— 

1,000 
portions. 

2,500 

portions. 

(a)  30-gallon  water-jacketed  boiler,  double  cased,  with 
rustless  cast-iron  pan,  draw-off  taps,  lid  and 
strainer. 

(6)  30-gallon  boiler,  single  cased  (not  water  jacketed 

Various  stews,  soups,  milk 
puddings,  etc. 

Vegetables  (boiled) 

2 

1 
2 

lor  2 

1 

1 

3 
2 

but  otherwise  as  above),  with  two  wire  baskets. 

(c)  Independent  cast-iron  steamer  on  stand  (simple 

type),  with  paper-tight  door  and  having  auto- 
matic feed;  inside  size  about  7  cubic  feet. 

(c.  1)  Steamer  to  fit  into  boiling  pan.  with  four 
wire  travs  and  front  door  (tinned  plate),  or 

(r.  2)  Cupboard  steamer,   independent  tj-pe, 
with  four  wire  traysand  front  door  (tinned  plate). 

(d)  Vertical  oven,  fitted  with  five  grids,  capable  of 

being  adjusted  to  various  heights,  about  50  by 

24  inches  inside. 
(f)  Boiling  plate  4  feet  6  inches  by  2  feet  6  inches  by 

2  feco '.)  inches  hign,  on  stand,  having  C  burners 

and  1  grill er,  with  single  oven  under;  inside 

capacity  of  oven  about  7  cubic  feet. 
Alternative  to  above:  Small  single  oven  with 

boiling  plate  at  one  end,  resting  on  feet  at  one 

end,  and  bracketed  to  oven  at  other  end,  above 

5  feet  G  inches  over  all. 
(/)  Serving  table  and  hot  closet,  size  4  feet  6  inches  by 

2  feet  e  inches  by  2  feet  J  inches  high,  with  plain 

top. 

Fish,  puddings,  and    vege- 
tables (steamed). 

Roasting  and  baking 

Frying,  stock,  sauces,  gra- 
vies, etc. 

3 

2  or  3 

1 

1 

BMAiL   EQUIPMENT. 


2  roller  towel  supports. 

3  menu  frames  and  letters. 

1  clock. 

8  signs  marking  divisions  of  counter 
for  "Meat,"  "Pudding,"  and 
"  Soup  and  vegetables." 

P>  door  mats. 

25  dozen  basins  (enameled),  3  inches 
diameter. 

4  dozen  pudding  basins  (1-quart  size). 
3  lard  tins,  18  inches  to  20  inches. 

2  dozen  pie  dishes,  16  inches. 

1  milk  pail  with  dipper  (4  gallons). 
76 


3G  baking  dishes  of  various  sizes,  28, 
20,  IS,  and  16  inches  square,  and  2 
to  3  inches  deep. 

Iron  saucepans,  tin  lined,  with  two 
handles — 

3  of  3  gallons. 

4  of  2  gallons. 
1  of  1*  gallons. 

2  frj'iiig  pans,  16  inches  diameter. 
Deep  frying  pot  and  tray,  20  inches 

long. 

3  colanders,  tin  lined,  one  18  inches  di- 
ameter, two  16  inches  diameter. 


AGENCIES  FOE  THE  SALE  OF  COOKED  FOODS. 


77 


Enameled  basins,  six  20  inches  di- 
ameter, four  18  inches  diameter. 

2  kettles. 

2  mincers. 

12  cook's  knives,  12,  9,  and  5  inches. 

4  forks, 
pairs  of  carvers, 
steel, 
chopper, 
saw. 

boning  knife. 

ice  pick  for  breaking  salt, 
iron  spoons,  12  inches. 

6  enameled  spoons.  [ 

12  wooden  spoons,  10  to  24  inches. 

2  basting  spoons.  1 

3  vegetable  peelers, 
coarse  mesh  (conical), 
fine  mesh  (round), 
spice  box. 

flour  dredger, 
salt  box, 
pepper  box. 

G  pot  stands. 

2  fish  slicers. 

2  graters.  . 

G  ladles  (two  of  1  pint,  two  of  |  pint, 
two  of  i  pint). 

Enameled  jugs  (two  of  1  gallon,  two 
of  J  gallon). 

Enameled  trays  for  storing  and  serv- 
ing food  (12,  22  by  16  inches;  12, 
18  by  13  inches). 

Scales  to  14  pounds. 

Small  scales  to  1  pound. 

Pint  measure. 

A  potato  washer. 

1  corkscrew. 

8  to  12  galvanized  iron  bins  for  cereals 
(raised  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground  on  wooden  struts  or  bat- 
tens). 

AVooden  bins  for  vegetables. 


2  trestle  tables. 

Jars  and  boxes  for  dry  foods. 

3  wire   meat    covers,   24,   20,    and    12 
inch. 

1  chopping  block. 

Weighing  machine  (4  hundredweight). 

Scales,  56  pounds. 

6  scoops. 

A  raised  platform  for  sacks. 

1  bass  broom. 

1  dustpan  and  brush. 

1  hair  broom. 

1  vegetable  brush. 

4  scrubbing  brushes. 

2  sink  brushes. 

2  saucepan  brushes. 

2  nail  brushes. 

1  set  of  blacklead  brushes. 

1  dozen  dusters. 

1  dozen  rubbers. 

1  dozen  towels. 
6  roller  towels. 
6  hand  towels. 

2  buckets. 
1  mop. 

4   galvanized   baths,   24   inch   and   30 

inch. 
1  funnel. 
1  pair  of  scissors. 

1  tin  opener. 

2  skimming  ladles. 

2  wire  sieves,  16  by  14  inch    (one  of 

finer  mesh). 
2  vegetable  presses. 
2  rolling  pins,  24  inch. 
G  chopping  boards,  18  inch  and  16  inch. 
2  sanitary  dustbins  (vegetable  matter 

must  be  kept  apart  from  ashes). 
2  soap  dishes. 
1  dozen  dish  cloths. 
1  pair  of  steps. 
Chef's    caps    and    coats,    and    serving 

aprons  for  staff. 


Y.C  93827 


IV1237963 


\JS1 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


